3400 Wildlife Preservation - Herbicide Use in Rolling Hills•
d. Pesticide ordinance follow-up on Northern California Cities of Sebastopol and
Fairfax.
Councilmember Pernell stated that he had requested that staff research the use of pesticides in
other jurisdictions. In response to Councilmember Pemell, City Manager Nealis explained
that Sebastopol never adopted an ordinance and that the Fairfax ordinance had not resulted in
any citations. He also said that Fairfax had been threatened by pesticide industries for possible
litigation under the provision that state law regarding pesticides that preempts local
jurisdiction.
In response to Councilmember Pernell, City Attorney Jenkins explained the use of pesticides
on. public property. He. reported that the City of Hermosa Beach initiated an experimental.
program of not using pesticide. He said that attempting to control the use of pesticides on
private property may cause a legal challenge from the pesticide industry and that there are
both federal and state laws governing pesticides use and application.
Councilmember Pernell stated that he feels that the City should be sensitive to this issue and
that he feels that a pesticide use notification process may be helpful. He also stated that he
feels that pesticides should be used in a way that respects the neighborhood.
After discussion, the City Attorney was directed research this subject and provide information
at an upcoming City Council meeting.
PLANNING COMMTCCrnKT rr1n,rc
i
1
Introduction to a paper presented to the Wildlife
Committee at the Council Chambers in the City of Rolling
Hills, Ca.
TITLE: Herbicide Use in Rolling Hills
WRITTEN BY: Fllavio iign9a�no, Ph.D.
DATE: rXY 22, 19
Emulating nature in landscaping begins with respect for an
optimally balanced environment. As residents of Rolling Hills,
we want to sustain the native habitat of the wildlife in our
area. More specifically, this is to understand how plant
species inter -relate with one another to grow into vegetation
that provide food and shelter for wildlife.
The paper introduces five inter -related topics which are:
What is a Weed:
Methods to Control Weeds
At Issue: Weed killers, their Pros and Cons
Plant Ecology and the Ecological Role of Weeds
Expanding the Concept of Ecology
Closing thoughts about safer use of herbicides and References
conclude the paper.
Prudent use of herbicides is the focus of the paper. Histori-
cally, synthesized chemicals that kill weeds began to be used
after World War II, with widespread chemical spraying, in-
creasing food productivity and esthetically improving the
landscape became a reality. An unseen reality was happening
at the same time, the.indiscrimant spraying of weeds has slowly
polluted the air, water, and soil that defines our environment.
Nature, itself, is chemical. The wanton use of man-made
chemicals is disrupting nature's intricately balanced chemistry.
In the larger context, preservation of this harmony in nature
depends upon finding ways of thinking that more clearly defines
"What is the role of man in sustaining the pyramid of living
organisms that inhabit Planet Earth?"
HERBICIDE USE IN ROLLING HILLS
by
Flavio Bisignano, Ph.D.
CONTENTS
I. What is a Weed?
II. Methods to Control Weeds
III. At Issue: Weed Killers, their Pros and Cons
IV. Plant Ecology and the Ecological Role of Weeds
V. Expanding the Concept of Ecology
VI. Closing Thoughts
VII. References
I. What is a Weed?
"Any plant growing where it is not wanted", defines a weed.
For example, when dandelions are cultivated as fresh greens to
be eaten - they are not perceived as weeds. When dandelions
invade the lawn, they become a nuisance.
The term "weed" is a non -technical word for many herbaceous
(non -woody) plants growing wild . These are unwanted, self -
propagating plants as opposed to cultivated plants whose seeds
are deliberately sown.
Why are some plants unwanted?
1. Any plant robbing the soil of nutrients and moisture
stunts the growth of cultivated plants.
2. Root stems of some weeds multiply underground, choking
out the root systems of wanted plants.
3. The resiliency of some weed seeds allow the seeds to
be buried in soil remaining dormant for years and then
germinate.
4. Weeds serve as hosts to fungi that spread to
cultivated plants. Other weeds serve as a source for
viruses. Some insects that directly attack cultivated
plants, breed on weeds.
5. Weeds that grow in hayfields are of low food value.
Some weeds eaten by cows leave an unpleasant flavor in
milk. Buttercups are weeds that thrive in pastures
where cows graze. However, they contain an irritating
juice that cattle dislike.
6. Weeds with pointed seed pods may get caught in the
coats of animals causing discomfort.
Plants, wanted or unwanted, could not exist without soil.
Without plants, no food chain could evolve. All green plants
absorb mineral nutrients from the soil for metabolic activity.
Particular species of plants adapt to particular kinds of
soil. For example, the optimal environment for cactus plants
is soil with low moisture content. The soil could not form
without water and the atmosphere.
Plants interact with elements in the soil to provide the
nutrients needed for growth. Nitrogen, an essential nutrient
cannot be used by the plant directly from the atmosphere.
Nitrogen forms 16 percent of all living tissue. Atmospheric
nitrogen is made available to plants by the process of
nitrification.
Geologically, the earth's crust is a shell of solid rock about
20 to 30 miles thick. Soil is the link between the rock shell
and vegetation on the earth's surface. Soil is a mix of
disintegrated rock and decayed organic matter that is
populated with microscopic life. Capillaries throughout the
particle mix are pore space occupying air and water.
Soil formation is a weathering process. Atmospheric conditions
and living organisms are in constant interaction with
inorganic rock. Temperature is a powerful agent in
fragmenting rock. Rocks are composed of various minerals
(naturally occurring chemical elements of inorganic
compounds). While all minerals expand in heat some expand
more than others. The uneven expansion of diverse minerals
crack rocks, causing crevices into which water seeps. In cold
weather, the water freezes causing ice in the crevices to
exert enough pressure to split rocks. Over the centuries, the
cycle of freezing, thawing, and refreezing are the physical
processes chemical weathering involves micro-organisms to
convert elements from air and water into nutrients that plants
can use. The metabolic activity of the soil is upon bacteria,
fungi, and algae (algae is the traditional term for unrelated
groups of photo synthetic organisms). An example: legumes
would starve for lack of nitrogen without soil nitrogen -fixing
bacteria to form root nodules on the plants. In the process,
atmospheric nitrogen is converted into nitrogenous compounds.
In simpler terms, the roots supply carbohydrates for the
bacteria. In a complex process, these bacteria combine free
nitrogen from the air with oxygen to form nitrates.
Eventually, nitrogen as a vital element of living tissue, is
present in the form of amino acids that make-up chains of
protein (clover and alfalfa are examples of legumes).
II. Methods to Control Weeds
Cultivation: The mechanical removal of weeds by a garden
tool such as a hoe.
Crop Rotation: In farming, weeds can be kept i n check by
planting a different crop in the same field every few years.
For example, weeds invading a cornfield would be of a
different plant species than the weeds found in a hayfield.
Take over by new weeds attracted to a newly planted crop could
starve out most weedseeds remaining in the soil attracted to
the previous year's crop.
Plant -eating insects: A biological control. An historic
example, at the turn of this century the Klamath weed (goat
weed) migrated from its native habitat in Europe. Having no
ecology in this country - which means there were no natural
predators to stop the goat weed spread to the Klamath river
area in california Not until 1944, after devastating some two
and a half million acres of land, were tow species of beetles
imported from France. These beetles feed and reproduce on
goatweed, gradually decreasing this toxic plant. In 1959, a
ten year survey document the effectiveness of this biological
control.
Fertilizer with added insecticides/herbicides: Oarbinations
exist for special lawn problems. the convenience is in the
application of the already mixed product. However, the proper
time to fertilize the grass may not be the best time to kill
weeds. An example, Ortho's "Weed and Feed" is but one product
available in garden centers.
Weed -Killing Sprays: (active ingredients) vary in their
action: Arsenic and Chlordane have been used to kill
crabgrass; chlordane is a chlorinated hydrocarbon in which
toxic deposits build-up in animal tissue in cumulative
fashion. Arsenic in the weed killer sodium arsenate, is a
carcinogen. (Carcinogenic can play either a direct or an
indirect role in causing cancer). The "dinitro" herbicides
are a metabolic stimulant that "burn" weeds. Aminotriazole
(amitrol) is a mutagenic agent capable of altering genes.
This is known as the cranberry -weed killer. Mutations assault
chromosomes, thus allowing cells to multiply in a wild and
unregulated manner.
Other herbicides include 2,4 -D/2,4,5 -T and related compounds;
IPC and CIPC, chemically related to carbarmates; all these are
mutagens.
In the application of weed killing products, use them
according to the manufacturer's direction. Ideally, these
chemicals are toxic only to weeds; but in reality, they
threaten the food chain. An example, the herbicide 2,4-D
temporarily disrupts nitrification.
Selectively killing weeds with as little harm to wildlife as
possible is to decide which approved commercial herbicide is
the right product, and then to apply it in the right way, at
the right time.
The Product label informs you of:
What is the active ingredient
The toxicity rating
recommended amount to use
Storing and disposing of any used product/container
The active ingredient•is the chemical toxin in the herbicidal
product that kills targeted weeds. A toxin is any substance
with the potential to harm living organisms. A targeted weed
is a plant in which the roots/leaves will absorb a particular
herbicide in a way that will disrupt normal plant growth.
Ease and rate of absorption varies with both the weed species
and chemical composition of the active ingredient. After
weeds are killed, we need to know how quickly the active
ingredient will biodegrade. This is the capacity of microbes
in the soil to decompose a toxin into less hazardous
substances. The longer toxic residues persist in the soil
before biodegrading, the greater the threat to wildlife.
Toxicity of the product varies with both its chemical
composition, and level of concentration of the active
ingredient. Toxicity ratings are indicated by signal words:
Danger or Poison means highly toxic
Warning means moderately toxic
Caution means slightly toxic
Use only the recommended amount. Apply the product according
to directions. Time the application at a vulnerable stage in
weed growth. If possible spot -treat. Herbicides vary in
selectivity, which is defined in terms of killing only the
targeted weeds in the presence of non -targeted plants. As
with any other labeled product containing hazardous
substances, adhere to directions for storing and/or disposing
of any leftover herbicidal product/container. Careless
disposal of hazardous substances may eventually seep into the
groundwater and damage the water supply. For proper disposal
of unused herbicidal products, contact the local sanitation
department. They can tell you where to find an approved
collections program or a recycling center for toxic
substances. For further information about the use and
environmental impact of herbicides, call (800) 858 -PEST. This
is a 24 hour hotline, funded by the EPA and the Texas Tech
University Health Sciences Center School of Medicine.
III. At Issue:
Pesticides
herbicides
into three
Weed Killers, their Pros and Cons
divide into insecticides for insect control and
for weed control. Historically, pesticides group
generations.
First Generation: Pre - World War II
Inorganic agents such as arsenates of lead, nicotine,
and kerosene. In addition, formaldehyde gas was used
to treat diseased seed and sulfur, to destroy spores
in soil.
Example: Arsenic, as an active ingredient, was an
effective weed killer. the problem - arsenic
dust washed form plants by rain trickled into
streams and poisoned fish.
Second generation: Post World War II
Synthesized chemical agents. Two groups: chlorinated
hydrocarbons (DDT) and organic. phosphates (malathion)
and organic phosphates (malathion)
Example: Herbicides 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T their
toxicity is controversial.
Third generation: Research continues to genetically
engineer less toxic pesticides.
Example: EPA approved gene -altered dead bacteria
which gives off endotoxin, poisonous
only to targeted insects.
The use of man-made chemical weed killers (synthesized in the
laboratory) increase the quantity of food and aesthetical improve
the landscape.
Nature, itself, is chemical. Example: In photosynthesis, sunlight
converts water and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. In this
sense, synthesis means combining simple molecules to form a new
substance. However, nature is intricately balanced and the misuse
of man-made chemicals is disrupting this balance.
One reason for the misuse of herbicides is the lack of
understanding of the relationship between weeds and soil.
Indiscriminant spraying pollutes more than targeted weeds.
Chemical residues reduce the number of earthworms and other
organisms that decompose soil. some weed species develop
resistance to the herbicides designed to control them. Examples
are ragweed and crabgrass.
Herbicides have been defended as harmless to wild life because they
were thought to be less toxic than insecticides. The cumulative
chemical residues of herbicides have endangered wildlife habitat.
to destruct homes and food of wildlife can be more devastating than
direct killing. Chemical residue tends to concentrate in animal
tissue as they pass up the food chain.
One way to avoid misusing weed killers is to observe plants in
their native habitat. Learn to identify diverse species of plants.
Only then can yo selectively apply weed -killers target unwanted
plants.
IV. Plant Ecology and the Ecological Role of Weeds
Plant ecology studies the dynamics of plant, animal, soil, and
atmosphere that establishes food webs, they oxygen cycle, and the
carbon cycle. Field botany observes and identifies species of
plants in their native habitat. When land is barren and
atmospheric conditions permit, self -propagating plants (weeds)
succeed each other in a given order(lichens, mosses, herbs, shrubs,
and trees)
Descriptively, soil surfaces the earth to support vegetation. The
ecological role of weeds can be found wherever a piece of land is
stripped of vegetation and left idle. First, a dense ground cover
is formed to hold the soil in place by annual plants. Completing
their life cycle within a year, these weeds enrich the soil as they
rot. The next weeds are biennials which have a two-year lease on
life before being crowded out by perennials. Given more than a
two-year life span, some biennials live many years. If the climate
permits forest trees will grow. the longevity of forest trees will
persist until ravage by fire/flood or cut into lumber by man. when
vegetation is destructed and the ground i s bare, the ecological
cycle begins anew.
Nature emulated in landscaping begins with a better understanding
of the self -propagating plant species and how they inter -relate
with one another.
V. Expanding the Concept of Ecology
Ecologyis the study of the relationship between living things and
the non -living elements within the environment. Our physical
environment is the biosphere; which is made-up of land, water, and
air. Planet earth's air supply is finite. Given only solar
energy, life on earth is made possible by continually recycling and
refreshing the air int eh production of elemental oxygen to sustain
a balanced biosphere for the e pyramid of living organisms.
Photosynthesis is the chemical process involving sunlight -capturing
green plants to generate the air we breathe and the carbohydrates
we eat. Oxygen production begins with plankton (free-floating,
green microscopic plants) in the ocean. This is the earth's air -
freshening system.
An ecosystem is any environment where the web -of -life is self -
renewing. Very large ecosystems are called biomes such as the rain
forest and the Antarctica. Antarctica's barren "land" of ice is
the native habitat for penguins. In sharp contrast, brightly
colored birds are among the diversity of many species at home in
the abundantly vegetated tropical rain forests, global ecosystems
are interdependent with one another. This is harmony in nature.
Breakdown of intricately balanced ecosystems are leaving gaps in
the pyramid of living organisms when oxygen production form the
oceans cannot keep pace with oxygen consumption by man, the entire
biological structure is threatened.
VI. Closing thoughts:
1. Identify the weeds that you want to keep in check
2. What are the options to control them?
3. If you decide on a herbicide follow manufacturer's
directions to avoid misuse. The key point: know the pros
and cons of the active ingredient
4. Stay updated on herbicidal products that may be available
try to avoid products in which the active ingredient may
leave a chemical residue in the soil that could get into
the food chain.
5. As Rolling Hills residents observe plants and animals
whose native habitat is in our. area. Learn how plants
interrelate with one another to grow into a vegetate that
provides food and shelter for wild life.
REFERENCES
All About Fertilizers, Soils, and Water. Ortho Books, Chevron
Chemical Company. 1979.
Brun, Gilbert D. "Plant Ecology and Field Botany", Understanding
Botany A Laboratory Guide. Burgess Publishing Company, 1984.
Carson, Rachel. The Silent Spring, Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1962.
Christensen, Clyde M. "The Weeds", The Book of Popular Science,
Vol. 7, Grolier Inc., 1966.
Encyclopedia Science Supplement, Grolier Inc.
1970. Cottam, Clarence, "Pesticide Pollution."
1974. Foster, Ruth S. " Plants and the Urban
Ecosystems."
1976. Wolf,
Biologically."
Anthony, "Controlling Insects
Gales, Donald Moore. Handbook of Wildflowers, Weeds, Wildlife, and
Weather of the Palos Verdes Peninsula, Rolling Hills, 1988.
Harte, John, et al. Toxics A to Z: A Guide to Everyday Pollution
Hazards. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
Levine, Louis, City College of New York, ",Biotechnology" Grolier
Encyclopedia, 1992 Yearbook.
Schwartz, Linda. The Big Book of Questions and Answers:
Earth. Publications International, LTD. 1992.
Save the
Diseases
65-69
"Using Pesticides Safely" Sunset: Garden Pests and
Menlo Park: Sunset Publishing Corporation. 1993.
Ca, opeo fl ny
INCORPORATED JANUARY 24, 1957
JODY MURDOCK
Mayor
GINNY LEEUWENBURGH
Mayor Pro Tem
THOMAS F. HEINSHEIMER
Councilmember
GODFREY PERNELL
Councilmember
GORDANA SWANSON
Councilmember
Dr. Flavio Bisignano
18 Crest Road East
Rolling Hills, CA 90274
February 15, 1994
NO. 2 PORTUGUESE BEND ROAD
ROLLING HILLS, CALIF. 90274
(310) 377-1521
FAX: (310) 377-7288
Dear Dr. Bisignano:
Enclosed with this letter is an updated version of the Herbicide
Paper. Revisions made include, removal of the section on burning
weeds, and a minor revision of the Bibliography.
If you wish to make any further modifications to the paper, or have
any questions, please do not hesitate to contact us at City Hall
before Tuesday's Wildlife Committee meeting. Again, the City
appreciates all the time and effort you placed in preparing this
paper.
Sncerely,
/167-7
Stephen Y. Aryan
Administrative Intern
SYA:me
C:/WP51DATA\HERB
Printed on Recycled Paper.
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
COUNTY AGRICULTURAL COMMISSIONER'S OFFICE
NOTICE OF ERADICATION TREATMENT
On // Z 8/O 7 at approximately
your property was treated with:
P.M.,
Spinosad - The ingredients in this product meet the requirements of the USDA
National Organic Program.
Precautions:
• Avoid contact with treated trees and shrubs for four (4) hours.
• Wait 24 hours before harvesting fruits and vegetables treated with Spinosad.
• Wash all fruits and vegetables before eating, as you normally would.
• To prevent the spread of this pest, freeze or process all fruits and vegetables
before giving them to friends or neighbors.
If you have any questions, please call ( 800) 491-1899
Thank you for your cooperation.
Front and back yard treated
Front yard treated
Back yard treated
Side yard treated
BLOCK NUMBER 3605-6 Date 11/28/2007
60-232(10/98)
OFICINA DEL COMISIONADO DE AGRICULTURA DEL CONDADO
DEPARTAMENTO DE ALIMENTO Y AGRICULTURA
AVISO DE TRATAMIENTO DE ERRADICACION
El dia a aproximadamente la(s) A.M.
P.M.,
se aplico un tratamiento a su propiedad. El tratamiento fue:
Spinosad - Los ingredientes de este producto Henan los requisitos del USDA del Programa
Nacional Organico.
Precauciones:
• Por cuatro (4) horas evite contacto con arboles y arbustos tratados..
• Espere 24 horas antes de cosechar las frutas y vegetales que fueron tratados con
Spinosad.
• Lave toda las frutas y vegetales antes de comerlos, como usted normalmente lo
haria.
Si usted tiene preguntas, por favor (lame ( 800) 491-1899
Gracias por su cooperacion.
NIJMERO DE CUADRA 3605-6 Date 11/28/2007
;
-~-meeting of the City Council. Staff was directed to prepare a plaque for presentation to Mrs.
Ginny Leeuwenburgh for her many years of service to the City.
OPEN AGENDA - APPROXIMATELY 8:00 P.M. - PUBLIC COMMENT WELCOME
Mayor Murdock introduced and welcomed Captain Jay Zuanich as the new Captain of the Los
Angeles County Sheriff's Department, Lomita Station.
MATTERS FROM MEMBERS OF THE CITY COUNCIL
Councilmember Pernell commented on the memorandum prepared by staff at his request
regarding what other cities have. done to regulate the backyard use of pesticides. City
Manager Nealis reported that several cities in Northern California were queried on the
subject: In response to Councilmember Pernell, City Manager Nealis stated that staff would
provide updated research on this subject in 'six months. 7
Mayor Murdock indicated that Mayor Pro Tern Allen Lay will be representing the City at the
Palos Verdes Peninsula Coordinating Council Peninsula Priorities Luncheon on Thursday.
MATTERS FROM STAFF
None.
MATTERS FROM THE CITY ATTORNEY
None.
ADJOURNMENT
Hearing no further business before the City Council, Mayor Murdock adjourned the meeting
at 8:04 p.m. to the next regularly scheduled meeting of the City Council to be held on Monday,
October 8, 2001 in the City Council Chambers, at City Hall, 2 Portuguese Bend Road, Rolling
Hills, California.
Approved,
Mayor
Minutes
City Council Meeting
09/24/01
Respectfully submitted,
Marilyn L. K rn
Deputy City Clerk
-3-
i
e144 WIZ/ling Jill,
INCORPORATED JANUARY 24, 1957
NO. 2 PORTUGUESE BEND ROAD
ROLLING HILLS, CALIF. 90274
(310) 377-1521
FAX: (310) 377-7288
E-mail: cityofrh@aol.com
Agenda Item No.: 5.1
Mtg. Date: 07/16/01
TO: HONORABLE CHAIR AND MEMBERS OF THE WILDLIFE
PRESERVATION COMMITTEE
FROM: CRAIG NEALIS, CITY MANAGER
SUBJECT: CONSIDERATION OF INFORMATION RELATIVE TO WILDLIFE
AND PESTICIDES
DATE: JULY 16, 2001
Councilmember Godfrey Pernell has suggested that information be made available at
City Hall relating to wildlife and pesticides. Attached to this staff report is information
that was gathered by Wildlife Preservation Committee Member Steve Shultz.
RECOMMENDATION
It is recommended that members of the Wildlife Preservation consider directing staff to
make this information available at City Hall.
CRN:mlk
07/16/01 wpcpesticide.s to
Printed on Recycled Planer.
Wildlife and Pesticides A practical guide to
reducing the risk
• Introduction
• Potential Hazards to Wildlife
• Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
• Assessing Pesticide Risk to Wildlife
• Reducing Pesticide Exposure Risk
• Pesticide Toxicity to Wildlife
• Summary
• Toxicity Tables
Pesticides are widely used in agriculture today. Producers use pesticides because they are effective and generally reasonably
priced. The benefits include reduced yield losses and timesavings to the producer, and lower food and fiber costs for consumer.
There are some downside risks to pesticide use. Pesticide poisonings of people, livestock, and wildlife have occurred when
proper care was not exercised. Pesticide applicators must be very careful to avoid these risks.
Pesticides, when used with good judgement and care in accordance with label instructions, benefit both agriculture and the
environment. Proper use ensures that food and wildlife production objectives can both be realized.
Every pesticide applicator must accept responsibility to prevent or minimize the effects of pesticide applications on nontarget
organisms. There are several things you as an applicator can do to reduce the risk of pesticide exposure to nontarget plants,
animals and habitats.
Potential Hazards to Wildlife
In order to better protect wildlife from the risks of pesticide exposure it is necessary to understand what effects pesticides may
have on wildlife.
Several hundred different pesticides are used in agriculture today. Each one of these products has different characteristics that
can affect the risk posed to different types of wildlife. While a particular pesticide may pose no harm to mammals, it may cause
severe harm to aquatic or bird life. Knowing these differences will greatly assist you in making the proper pesticide use
decision.
There is much documentation showing that wildlife can be harmed by particular pesticides. The documentation includes
laboratory toxicity studies on various types of wildlife, field trials that must be performed in order to register the pesticide, and
reports of incidents of wildlife poisoning.
In Oregon in the 1970s, aldrin and mercury treated seed grain killed thousands of wild geese and other wildlife. Thirty-six
Canada geese were killed in 1988 as a result of an application of carbofuran (Furadan) and disulfoton (Di-Syston) in Idaho.
Phorate (Thimet) was involved in the deaths of hundreds of waterfowl and several bald and golden eagles in South Dakota in
1989.
Many of the incidents involving wildlife kills result from misuse or illegal applications. One such incident occurred in 1990
when an applicator in North Dakota illegally applied carbofuran (Furadan) to carcasses for predator control. He was found
guilty of killing several forms of wildlife, possibly including a bald eagle.
Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
Pesticides' effects on wildlife may be lethal, sublethal, acute, chronic, habitat related, or there may be no effect. In general the
risk a pesticide poses to wildlife is related to the pesticide type, its toxicity, the proximity of the application to wildlife habitat,
the dose, application rate, number of applications, the persistence of the pesticide in the environment, and its ability to
concentrate in the wildlife food chain. These factors interact with food habits and behavior of individual wildlife species to
produce a response.
Pesticide Type
In general, insecticides are more toxic to fish and wildlife than herbicides or fungicides. Some herbicides may harm wildlife by
damaging the wildlife habitat.
Many of the insecticides currently used are either the organophosphate or carbamate type. These insecticides work by
interfering with the central nervous system of insects. The central nervous system of fish or wildlife may be affected the same
way. The toxicity of the various organophosphate and carbamate insecticides ranges from slightly toxic products to products
that are highly toxic. The more toxic products are generally restricted use pesticides, which require applicators to be certified
by their state regulatory agency to purchase and apply products.
Synthetic pyrethroid insecticide use has been increasing. These synthesized insecticides are based on naturally occurring
pesticides, but have been modified to improve performance and persistence. Synthetic pyrethroids also work by interfering
with the central nervous system. Synthetic pyrethroids are low to medium in toxicity to mammals and birds because they can
quickly detoxify and excrete them. However, fish and aquatic invertebrates can not quickly detoxify or excrete synthetic
pyrethroids, so they are highly susceptible to poisoning by these products.
Herbicides and fungicides are generally low to moderately toxic to wildlife. Particular herbicides can have a large impact on
the plant life making up the wildlife habitat.
Direct Effects
Wildlife can be exposed to pesticides directly by eating contaminated food or water, breathing pesticides, or by skin
absorption.
The type and magnitude of the effect depends on two factors, the pesticide toxicity and pesticide quantity (dose). If exposure
causes the animal's death, it is referred to as a lethal effect.
Young birds that eat or are fed pesticide treated insects are at great risk of suffering lethal pesticide exposure effects. Sublethal
insecticide effects occur when damage to the central nervous system causes an animal to behave in a unusual manner. This
behavior may affect the animal's ability to survive or reproduce. Some typical sublethal responses in birds exposed to
pesticides include the inability to sing properly, establish a breeding territory, or attract a mate. Adults may be unable to care
for themselves or their young properly, resulting in death to the nestlings or increased chance of predation.
The lethal and sublethal effects of pesticides on wildlife and fish may occur from one exposure over a short time period (acute)
or they may result from exposures to small amounts over a longer time period (chronic). Pesticides commonly used today do
not persist as long in the environment as pesticides used years ago. The tradeoff is that the acute toxicity of some of these
modem pesticides is higher than the older, more persistent chemicals.
Indirect Effects
Wildlife in general, and birds in particular, may also experience lethal or sublethal effects without being directly exposed to a
pesticide. This typically occurs when a pesticide application destroys or disrupts food sources such as insects. Insects supply
the protein necessary for growing birds. Studies indicate that the growth of young birds can be stunted in areas where
insecticides have been used heavily, resulting in insect populations too low to meet young bird protein growth demands. Fish
that feed on aquatic insects and animals may also show stunted growth in areas of heavy insecticide use because their primary
food sources are killed. Inadequate diets also can affect fish reproduction and survival. Herbicides can reduce the amount of
cover and make the habitat less suitable for nesting.
Assessing Pesticide Risk to Wildlife
To properly assess the need for pesticides and the risk to wildlife, information must be gathered on the condition of the crop,
the pest situation, characteristics of candidate pesticides, present and expected weather, and some knowledge about the kinds
and behavior of wildlife living in the area. The importance of good judgement, practical experience and common sense cannot
be overemphasized. Prior to each and every pesticide application, the overall situation should be evaluated so that the expected
benefits of a pesticide application are realized and potential hazards are minimized. Good information is necessary to make
good judgements.
Monitor Fields Regularly
Field scouting must be done. It is important to be aware of the status of the field, the crop stage, general health, and yield
potential of the crop, as well as the number and growth stage of the various pests that are present. Careful scouting will reveal
any wildlife that may also be present. Most pests and most wildlife do not occur uniformly throughout a fold. Drawing a map
of the field showing the locations of pest populations and wildlife along with recognizable landmarks can aid you in
developing a pest control plan that avoids possible effects on wildlife.
Identify Wildlife Signs, Seasons, and Habitats
One way to ensure that wildlife will not be impacted by a pesticide is to make the application when wildlife are not present.
Most wildlife signs can be easily determined while scouting the field. Virtually all agricultural crops will support some type of
wildlife. A wide assortment of wildlife will likely be visible during most scouting trips.
Areas where wildlife are most likely to be located are field perimeters and other areas where fields may come into contact with
windbreaks, wetlands, livestock watering ponds, fence rows, abandoned farmsteads, grasslands or odd areas.
Take note of areas where you actually see animals. Other evidence that wildlife are present and using the area includes signs
such as tracks,.droppings, or foraging evidence.
If numerous wildlife signs are present, pesticide applicators can reduce potential impacts to wildlife by marking such areas on a
field map or leaving a flag in that area of a field. When spraying around sensitive areas, leave a buffer zone of at least one-half
the width of a sprayer boom. Another way to minimize potential impacts to wildlife is to restrict spraying activities in these
fields between the hours of 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. During this period, many wildlife will seek the protective cover of cropland,
particularly taller row crops, as they wait out the day prior to beginning evening and early moming foraging activities.
Critical Reproductive Periods and Habitats
Most wildlife reproduction occurs from May 1 to late June and early July. This is perhaps the most critical for many of our
resident and migratory wildlife and fish. To complete this reproduction, animals seek out suitable habitats.
These habitats can include wetlands, windbreaks and shelterbelts, fencerows, rangelands, and croplands. Wildlife typically
nest, birth, feed, and rear their young in areas that provide not only some type of protective cover from the elements and
potential predators, but also sources of food.
The transition zones between habitat types, where one plant community changes to another, are preferred. These edges usually
produce the greatest variety of food plants, insects and seeds. This allows wildlife such as grouse, pheasants, and deer to feed
without venturing too far from protective cover. For this reason, most upland gamebird nests can be found in or near such
edges.
Wetlands are important feeding and brood rearing habitats for waterfowl. Insecticides applied near wetlands by ground
sprayers or aircraft can enter the habitat through drift or runoff and contaminate these areas. Depending on the insecticide type,
food sources may be destroyed, causing sublethal effects or a direct loss of young wildlife.
Similarly, shelterbelts and windbreaks are important habitats for many songbirds. Herbicide drift that results in injury to trees
and other vegetation can impair the ability of such habitats to provide safe, secure nesting sites. Insecticide drift can kill
nestlings and adult birds, as well as contaminate important insect food sources.
Reducing Pesticide Exposure Risk
Regular field scouting and a pest control plan should be a part of every producer's operation. Pests are best controlled by
manipulating cropping conditions to put pests at a disadvantage to the crop or beneficial organisms. Man and his crops are in
competition with pests, and ALL available methods for controlling pests should be considered, not just pesticides.
i.
Eliminate Unnecessary Pesticide Applications Through IPM
Few applicators knowingly apply unnecessary pesticides because pesticides cost money. Every applicator should ask, will this
application pay for itself? Growers should not substitute pesticides for good management. Pesticides are necessary but should
only be part of a total pest control program, not the entire program.
The best method of reducing risks to wildlife is to use integrated pest management (IPM) practices. IPM incorporates cultural
methods such as crop rotation, date of planting, variety choices, and seeding rates with other methods of pest control to
maintain pest populations at tolerable. levels. Under IPM, pesticides are used only when other methods are not successful and
pest damage to crops might otherwise exceed the cost of control.
Many pest management practices can help reduce the need for pesticides. Some additional control methods include crop
competition, crop rotation, tillage and cultivation, sanitation, planting resistant varieties, planting weed and disease free seed,
and using the natural controls present when possible.
A good example of non -pesticide control is a competitive crop. An early established, well developed crop can do much to help
control weeds. Plants emerging first have a competitive advantage over later emerging plants. Anything done to get quick crop
emergence that evenlycovers the ground early will have a big impact on weeds. Later emerging weeds are at a tremendous
disadvantage and may not cause yield and quality losses. The competitiveness of weeds and crops differs between species.
Weeds such as wild oats, wild mustard, and kochia arc very competitive, while others, such as redcoat pigwecd and fuxtails are
generally less competitive. Some crops ranked in order of decreasing competitiveness are rye, barley, conventional height
wheat, semidwarf wheat, and flax.
Choose the Pesticide Least Toxic to Non -target Organisms
Choose the least toxic pesticide that will control the pest. Often more than one pesticide is registered for control of a particular
pest in a particular crop. Take time to compare pesticides and make sure you choose the one BEST suited for the job. Many
times the best choice will be the least expensive treatment, but that is not always the case. Sometimes the best choice would be
a higher priced pesticide with fewer risks for nontarget plants and animals.
Pesticide Toxicity to Wildlife
Pesticide applicators can plan a pesticide application that is less toxic to wildlife by examining pesticide toxicity al,d pulcr►tial
for environmental injury to wildlife and wildlife habitats. This information can be found in tables presented in the back of this
publication.
When an applicator has identified the specific crop pest situation and checked local crop production guides, a pesticide can be
selected that minimizes risk to nontarget plants and animals and still achieves the desired level of control.
If the selected pesticide still poses a high threat to wildlife, the applicator would at least be aware of the risk and can take the
steps to minimize any potential threats by following recommendations in this publication.
Read the Pesticide Label
Certain pesticides pose a risk to wildlife or the environment. Some products are classified as RESTRICTED USE
PESTICIDES because of environmental hazards. Restricted use pesticides should only be applied by a certified applicator who
has been properly trained.
Pesticides that pose environmental risks are labeled to warn the applicator what the risks could be and what steps should be
taken to protect people, animals and the environment. These warnings can be found in the "Precautionary Statements" section
of the label. The precautionary section is divided into subsections dealing with "Hazards to Humans or Domestic Animals,"
Environmental Hazard" and "Physical or Chemical Hazard." The risks to wildlife and the environment may be found in
the "Environmental Hazard" section. It is a violation of federal law to apply pesticides in any way that is not consistent with
label instructions.
Hazards to Wildlife
If a particular pesticide is especially hazardous to wildlife, it will be stated on the label. For example:
• This product is highly toxic to bees.
• This product is toxic to fish.
• This product is toxic to birds and other wildlife.
The label may indicate that the product causes undesirable effects in the environment. In this case, the precautionary statement
may tell what to avoid doing. Labeling may indicate limitations imposed to protect wildlife, including endangered species.
These limitations may include reduced rates, restrictions on types of application, or a ban on the pesticide's use within the
species range. The.label also may indicate additional sources of information on proper application methods to reduce hazards.
These statements explain special hazards that the pesticides may pose. They should help when choosing the safest product for a
particular job and serve as a reminder to take extra precautions.
General Environmental Statements
General environmental statements appear on nearly every pesticide label as reminders of common sense actions needed to
avoid contaminating the environment. The absence of any or all of these statements DOES NOT change the requirement to
take adequate precautions.
Sometimes the statements will follow a "specific toxicity statement" and provide practical steps to avoid harm to wildlife.
Examples of general environmental statements include:
• Do not apply when runoff is likely to occur.
• Do not apply when weather conditions favor drift from treated areas.
• Do not contaminate water when cleaning equipment or disposing of wastes.
• Keep out of any body of water.
• Do not allow drift on desirable plants or trees.
• Do not apply when bees are likely to be in the area.
• Do not apply where the water table is close to the surface.
Note: It is the responsibility of every pesticide applicator to read and follow the label directions.
Use the Lowest Effective Rate
Many times the label will allow a range of rates to control a particular pest. Differences in pest size or stage, pest populations
and environmental conditions can affect the amount of pesticide needed. Often pesticide rates at the lower end of the rate range
can be used when pests are in sensitive growth stages, at lower populations and the weather and growing conditions are
favorable.
Use Buffer Zones
An area between the area sprayed and a sensitive area is called a buffer zone. This area can be a grass strip or may even be part
of the crop that is not treated. This buffer area will help trap pesticides and prevent them from entering sensitive areas by spray
drift or by runoff.
Spot Spraying
Many times a pest is located only in a portion of the field. Spraying only the area where the pest is found, leaving the rest of the
field untreated, reduces potential risks and saves time and money.
Begin Spraying In the Middle of the Field
Most wildlife will be present near the edges of a field. Spraying the field by starting in the middle of the field will allow
wildlife time to escape or move out of the field area.
Trap Areas
Some farmers are experimenting with the use of trap areas. Farmers will seed these areas with an early maturing crop variety
ahead of normal planting dates. These areas may attract pests and if pest populations develop in the trap area, a pesticide
application can be made. Controlling pests in this manner can reduce chances that pesticides willbe required on the rest of the
field.
Check Weather Conditions
A good applicator always checks the weather conditions before spraying. Weather conditions can greatly affect the pesticide
exposure through spray drift or runoff. Don't apply pesticides just before rains because pesticides could run off the treated field
with excess rainwater and potentially contaminate sensitive areas. Avoid spraying when weather conditions could cause spray
drift into sensitive areas.
Avoid Spray Drift
Spray drift can cause damage to wildlife or wildlife habitat. The following measures are available to greatly reduce drift.
Avoid spraying on windy days
Check the wind speed and direction. If conditions could cause spray drift into sensitive areas, don't
spray. If an application must be made you must take every precaution you can to prevent drift
from entering sensitive areas.
Another weather condition to avoid is a temperature inversion. Temperature inversions occur
when cooler air is near the ground and is beneath warmer air. Very small spray droplets will
remain suspended in the air and can move some distance.
Use a nonvolatile formulation
Some pesticides are volatile and can form vapors, usually on warmer (greater than 70 F) days,
which can drift into susceptible areas. If there is an alternative pesticide or formulation that is not
volatile and will control the pest, it should be used instead.
Increase Droplet Size
Spray nozzles produce spray dropletsof many different sizes. Larger droplets are heavier and drift
less. Practices that increase droplet size will reduce drift, such as increasing nozzle size or water
volume, reducing spray pressure or using a drift retardant.
Use Larger Nozzle
Larger nozzles allow you to apply the same volume �f spray with less spray pressure. Spray
droplets willbe larger than those produced by a smaller nozzle with higher pressure.
Increase Water Volume
Increasing the water volume will decrease drift because water droplets will be larger and will tend
to drift less.
Use the Lowest Practical Pressure •
Lower spray pressure will result in larger spray droplets that drift less than smaller droplets. If
spray pressure is reduced too much the spray pattern that results will not be uniform. Newer
nozzles such as the "LP" or "XR" type are designed to produce uniform spray patterns with
pressures of 15 to 20 pounds per square inch.
Use a Drift Retardant
A drift retardant will help reduce spray drift by increasing the size of spray droplets.. Larger
droplets tend to drift less than small droplets.
Reduce Spray Boom Height
Set spray booms at the lowest height that will give uniform coverage. The closer the boom is to
the spray target the less chance there is for drift.
Use a Shielded Sprayer
Using a shielded sprayer will help reduce spray drift by protecting the spray from wind. Shielded
sprayers allow a wider selection of spraying times during the day and more total spraying time per
day. These time savers can be used to more precisely target crop areas and avoid sensitive areas.
More information on spray drift can be found at your state's Cooperative Extension Service county
office.
Summary
The responsibility to prevent or minimize the effects of pesticide applications on nontargct organisms rests with every pesticide
applicator. Information concerning the proper use and application of a pesticide can be found on the product label.
Reducing the risk of pesticide exposure to nontarget organisms requires applicators to incorporate crop scouting and IPM
techniques with a knowledge of wildlife life cycles and habitats in developing a farm pesticide application plan: Development.
of such a plan will insure not only the most cost effective means for controlling crop pest situations, but also result in the
greatest reduction of risk of pesticide exposure to wildlife.
Resource Material
Apply Pesticides Correctly: A Guide for Commercial Applicators, U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Commercial and Private Applicator Core Manual: Initial Certification, September 1989, Cooperative Extension Service,
Michigan State University.
Dexter, A. Herbicide Spray Drift. 1986. NDSU Extension Service. A-657 revised.
Extoxnet Cooperative Extension Offices, Cornell, U of Calif., Michigan State, Oregon State Univ.
Facemire, F. Charles, 1991. Impact of agricultural chemicals on wetland habitats and associated biota with special
reference to migratory birds. B 780, SDSU, Brookings, SD. 65 pp.
Herbicide Handbook of the Weed Science Society of America. Sixth Ed., 1989, Weed Science Society of America,
Champagne, Illinois, 61820.
McBride, D.K.; D.E. Peterson, H.A. Lamey, 1988, Persistence and Mobility of Pesticides in Soil and Water, NDSU
Extension Service. E-49, NDSU Fargo, ND 58105
Pesticide Applicator Training Manual: Core Manual, 2nd Ed., Chemicals -Pesticides Program, Cornell University, 1990. D.
Rutz, Director, R. Gardner, W. Smith.
Wildlife and Pesticides: A practical guide to reducing the risk
(continued)
Toxicity Tables
These tables provide toxicity comparisons for commonly used pesticides. These comparisons are intended to give
applicators the information needed to reduce the risk of an application to wildlife.
INSECTICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
acephate Organo-
(Orthene) phosphate
Aldicarb Carbamate
(Temik)
azinphos Organo-
methyl phosphate
(Guthion)
Bacillus Microbial
Thuringiensis
(various) . .
carbaryl Carbamate
(Sevin)
carbofuran Carbamate
(Furdan)
chlorpyrifos
(Lorsban)
diazinon
(various)
Organo-
phosphate
Organo-
phosphate
dimethoate Organo-
(Cygon) phosphate
Toxicity class
III -(Birds and
mammals) I-
(Fish/aquatic insects)
I -Birds, fish, mammals
and aquatic insects)
I -(Mammals) II -IV
(Birds) II -
(Fish/aqurtic insects)
V -(Birds and
mammals)
Documented effects on
wildlife
Moderate to slight acute
oral toxicity to birds and
mammals Reduction in
ChE activity. contaminating wetlands, ponds, streams and
rivers.
Bird and mammal mortality Proper incorporation of granules. Consider
reported after ingestion of weather and terrain to avoid runoff potentials into
exposed granules. One of water areas.
the most toxic carbamate
pesticides. Extremely
toxicto aquatic organisms.
Extremely toxic to Scout fields to determine the presence of wildlife.
mammals in formulations Avoid or delay direct application when wildlife is
containing a high present. Exercise caution to reduce the risk of
percentage of active
ingredient. Highly toxic to
fish and aquatic insects.
No documented effects on
wildlife.
Best measures to reduce the risk of exposure
Increase water volumes to reduce drift. Avoid use
areas of high bird numbers. Use lowest
recommended effective rates. Avoid
III -IV -(Birds III- Moderate acute/chronic
(Mammals) I -(Aquatic toxicity to birds, fish, and
insects)
I -(All)
I -H -(Birds) II -III- Highly toxic to mammals
(Mammls) I -(Fish and and birds through oral
aquatic insects) Extremely toxic to fish and
aquatic insects.
III -(Mammals) I- Extremely toxic to birds
(Birds, fish and aquatic and moderately toxic to
insects) mammals. Toxic to bees,
fish, and other aquatic
organisms.
I -(Birds, fish, and Moderate acute oral
aquatic insects) III- toxicity to mammals.
direct, drift, or runoff applications to water or
wetland areas. Avoid contaminating ponds,lakes,
and streams.
Apply according to label directions.
Avoid direct applications to wetlands and other
waters. Reduce potentials for drift and runoff by
mammals. Low persistence. using buffer zones.
Toxic to aquatic insects.
Highly toxic to all forms of Avoid applying this chemical when wildlife is
wildlife even when applied present. Use buffer zones when applying near
at lowest recommended wetlands,other waters, and wooded areas. Use an
effective rate. alternate pestiicide. (Granular carbofuran has
been voluntarily cancelled and will be phased out
by 1994. Flowable is still registered.) •
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Do not apply when wildlife are present.
Applications should be made only after a careful
evaluation. Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds,
lakes, and streams.
Avoid application (direct, drift or runoff) on water
areas/wetlands. Use buffer zones near water and
(Mammals)
disulfoton Organo- I -(All)
(Di-Syston) phosphate
endosulfan
(Thiodan)
Chlorinated I -(Fish and aquatic
Hydrocarbon insects) II -IV (Bird
II (Mammals)
esfenvalerate Pyrethroid
(Asana)
I (Fish) IV -(Bird and
mammals)
parathion Organo- I -(All)
(methy ethyl) phosphate
(Penncap-M
various)
fenvalerate Pyrethroid
(Pydrin)
fonofos Organo-
(Dyfonate) phosphate
malathion Organo-
(Cythion) phosphate
Extremely toxic to birds, shelterbelts.
fish, and other aquatic
organisms. Pheasants are
particularly sensitive to this
pesticide.
Extremely toxic to birds,
mammals, fish, bee and
aquatic organisms.
Secondary poisoning in
birds eating treated insects
has been reported.
Fish kills associated with
s) I- contaminated agricultural
runoff. Concentrates of
<1.3 ppm were sufficient to
cause mortality. Highly
toxic to aquatic
organisms/insects.
Highly toxic to fish,
aquatic insects. No reported
toxicity in birds/mammals.
Ethyl and methyl parathion
are extremely toxic to
birds, mammals through
both acute oral and dermal
exposure at recommended
application rates. These
chemicals are highly toxic
to bees fish and other
aquatic organisms.
I -(Fish) IV-V(Bird and See Esfenvalerate
mammals)
I(All) Highly toxic to fish,
mammals and birds due to
chemical action, high field
use and relatively long
persistence. Used as a
granular treatment.
III -(Birds and No documented effects on
mammals) I -(Fish and wildlife (birds/ mammals)
aquatic insects)
methidathion Organo- II(All)
(Supracide phosphate
OP)
phorate Organo- I(All)
(Thimet) phosphate
when used at recommended
application rates. Toxic to
bees, fish and other aquatic
organism.
High acute oral toxicity to
birds/mammals, bees and
fish.
Extremely high oral and
dermal toxicity has been
documented in birds and
mammals after exposure to
pesticide. Wildlife deaths
reported are related to •
ingestion of improperly
incorporated granules, in
areas subject to flooding
and run off. Uptake of
chemical in plants may also
Proper field scouting to include a careful
evaluation of potential wildlife exposure will
reduce the risk. Do not apply when wildlife is
present.
Caution should be taken to avoid risks associated
with agricultural runoff. The use of buffer zone
will reduce risk associated with use of this
pesticide.
Measures to reduce the risks to wildlife. Avoid
applications (direct, drift, runoff in water bodies/
wetlands. Use lowest recommended effective
rates and buffer zones near water.
Prior to applying parathion a thorough scouting of
the field should be conducted. Field applications
of parathion should be made prior to 10 a.m. or
after 4 p.m. to minimize drift and leave buffer
zone near critical wildlife habitats such as
windbreaks and wetlands. Do not apply when
wildlife are present.
See esfenvalerate.
Complete incorporation of the product into the
soil will minimize wildlife exposure risks.
Consider weather and terrain to avoid runoff
contamination.
Avoid application (direct, drift or runoff) on water
areas/wetlands. Use near buffer zones near water.
Careful scouting of field to identify the presence
of wildlife and the subsequent avoidance of such
area and critical wildlife habitats during
application will minimize wildlife exposure risks.
In areas subject to flooding and runoff and where
wildlife are present in large concentrations
(migrations) the use of this pesticide should be
carefully evaluated. The pesticide must be
properly incorporated.
terbufos Organo-
(Counter) phosphate
permethin Synthetic
(Ambush pyrethroid
Pounce)
HERBICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
2,4-D Phenoxy
I(All)
I -(Fish and aquatic
insects) V -(Birds and
mammals)
Toxicity class
III -IV -(Birds and
mammals) II -
(Fish and other
aquatic
organisms)
2,4-D Amine
2,4-D Ester (see 2,4,-D)
acifluorfen Biphenol HI -V -(Birds) IV -
(Blazer) ether
alachlor Acetanilide
(various)
atrazine Triazine
(various)
bentazon Benzothia-
(various) diazoles •
(Mammals) I-
II(Fish and •
aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) IV -
(Fish)
III -IV -(Birds,
mammals and
fish)
bromoxyni Benzonitrile I -(Fish and
1 (Buctril) aquatic insects)
II -IV -(Mammals
and birds)
clopyralid Pyridine IV -V -(Birds and
(Stinger) mammals) II
cause wildlife exposure.
Extremely toxic to lab
mammals. Potential for
greatest impact due to
ingestion of granules.
Extremely toxic to aquatic
organisms. No documented
field effects on birds or
mammals.
Documented effects on wildlife
Moderately toxic to birds and
mammals. Highly toxic to insects,
fish. A reduction of birds broad-
leaved plants from applications can
result in a reduction in the nest
numbers of waterfowl and other
upland nesting birds. Use of a non
toxic oil vehicle during application
increases toxicity of the chemical to
egg embryos. Spray drift can harm
wooded areas.
No documented impacts on birds or
mammals. Toxic to aquatic
organisms. May damage susceptible
foliage (cover).
No documented impacts on birds and
mammals. Highly toxic to aquatic
insects and fish.
Slightly toxic to birds at high
concentrations. Indirect effects on
aquatic fauna may result as the
chemical impacts aquatic plant
species. Toxic to fish and aquatic
invertebrates at high concentrations.
No documented impacts on birds and
mammals. Moderately toxic to
Rainbow trout.
Extremely toxic to aquatic
invertebrates No documented impacts
on birds and mammals.
No documented impacts on wildlife.
Spillage, failure to cover granules, heavy rains or
high winds could expose granules increasing the
risk. If such conditions exist do not apply if
wildlife is present. In areas subject to flooding
and runoff and where wildlife are present in large
concentrations (migrations) the use of this
pesticide should be carefully evaluated. The
pesticide must be properly incorporated. Risk can
be reduced if applied as an in -furrow or modified
in -furrow application.
Prevent direct, applications or drift and runoff
into wetlands and other water. Use a buffer zone
if applied near water areas.
Best measures to reduce the risk of exposure
In areas where waterfowl and other upland nest
apply with a water based spray mixture. Spot
spray where possible to reduce impacts on
potential nest cover. Avoid spray drift. Apply
amine formulation where drift is a concern. Use a
buffer zone when applied in wooded areas, or
near water.
Avoid spray drift. Use buffer zones near surface
water. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
Avoid spray drift and runoff contamination of
wetlands and other water areas by using buffer
zones. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
To minimize the impacts of agricultural runoff
carrying this chemical into wetlands and other
waters employ buffer zones. Use at lowest
effective rate.Use with caution in areas where
groundwater contamination is likely. Avoid
contaminating ponds, lakes, wetlands, and
streams.
Use buffer zones to reduce potential impacts to
aquatic habitats. Do not apply when conditions
favor drift. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating ponds,
lakes, wetlands, and streams.
Use buffer zones if applying near water areas.
Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes, wetlands, and
cyanazine Triazine
$ (Bladex)
cycloate . Thio-
(Ro-Neet) carbamate
desmedop Carbamate
ham
(Betanex)
dicamba Benzoic
(Banvel) Acid
diclofop
(Hoelon)
Aryloxy-
phenoxy-
propionic
Acid
(Fish)
III -IV -(Birds and
mammals)
V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I -
(Fish and aquatic
organisms)
IV -(Birds and No documented field effects in
mammals) I -(Fish wildlife. Low toxicity to laboratory
and aquatic animals. Toxic to fish.
insects).
IV -(Birds
mammals, fish,
and aquatic
insects)
V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I -
(Fish, and aquatic
insects)
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Slightly toxic to aquatic
invertebrates.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
difenzoqu Bipyridilium IV -V -(Birds) IV- No documented field effects on
at
(Avenge)
EPTC Thio-
(Eptam) carbamate
ethalflurali Dinitro=
n aniline
(Sonalan)
fenoxapro Aryloxy-
p (Whip) phenoxy-
(Option) propionic
Acid
fluazifop Aryloxy-
(Fusilade) phenoxy-
propionic
Acid
glyphosate Amino Acid
(Roundup)
(Rodeo) Amino Acid
imaza- Imidazoline
methabenz
(Assert)
MCPA- Phenoxy-
amine carboxylic
MCPA- Acid
ester
metsulfuro Sulfonyl
n (Ally) Urea
Nicosulfur Sulfonyl-
on
(Mammals) II- wildlife.
(Fish) I -(Aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -
(Fish)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
III -IV Fish and
aquatic insects.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
Rodeo is slightly toxic to aquatic
organisms unlike its counterpart
Round -up.
IV -V (Birds and No documented field effects on
mammals) II- wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
(Fish and aquatic mammals.
insects)
III -IV (Birds and No documented field effects on
mammals) I- wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
III(Fish and mammals.
aquatic insects)
IV -V (Birds and No documented field effects on
mammals) II -III wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
(Fish and aquatic mammals.
insects)
IV -V -(Birds and No documented field effects on
mammals) IV- wildlife.
Slightly toxic to aquatic invertebrates.
No documented impacts in birds or
mammals.
No documented field effects in
wildlife. Low acute oral and dermal
toxicity in laboratory mammals. Toxic
to fish.
streams.
Use buffer zones if applying near wetland or
other waters. Use caution in areas where
groundwater contamination is likely.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Avoid spray drift.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
spray drift.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Use drift precautions. Apply the amine
formulation in areas where drift is a concern.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Avoid spray drift.
Apply according to label directions. Avoid spray
drift.
paraquat
(Cyclone)
(Gramoxo
ne- Extra)
pendimeth Dinitro-
alin anilien
(Prowl)
picloram Pyridine
(Tordon)
'
•
primisulfu Sulforiyl-
ron • ure a '
(Beacon)
quizalofop Aryloxy-
(Assure) phenoxy-
propionic
Acid
sethoxydi Cyclohex-
m (Poast) anedione
x> -
thifensulfu Sulfonyl-
ron urea
(Pinnacle)
triallate Thiocarb-
(Fargo) `amate
•
tribenuron ,Sulfonyl-
(Express) urea
trifluralin Dinitro-
(various) aniline
(Fish and aquatic
invertabrates)
I -(Fish and
aquatic
organisms) (waterfowl
embroyos,
embroyos,
mammals/bird)
IV -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -
(Fish)
IV -V -(Birds,
mammals, fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -
(Fish)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) IV -
(Fish and aquatic
insects)
IV -V -(Birds
mammals and
aquatic insects)
II -(Fish)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) I -II -
(Fish and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds,
mammals and
fish) III (Aquatic
invertebrates)
IV -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
FUNGICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
benomyl Benzimida-
(Benlate) zole •
chlorothaloni Aromatic
1 (Bravo)
iprodione
(Rovral)
Toxic to fish and other aquatic Use a buffer zone when applying near wetlands
organisms, duck egg embryos. slightly or other water areas. Avoid direct applications to
toxic to mammals and birds. wildlife and nests.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.Toxic to early life stage of
fish.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Avoid spray drift. Use buffer zones
when applying near water areas. Should not be
used where groundwater contamination is likely.
Apply accordin& to label directions. Avoid spray
drift.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
No documented field effects on Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and streams.
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Slightly toxic to aquatic
invertebrates.
Avoid spray deft. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Very low acute and subacute toxicity Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
to birds and mammals. Highly toxic to streams.
fish and aquatic insects.
No documented field effect on Avoid spray drift and contaminating wetlands,
wildlife. ponds, lakes, and streams.
High toxicity to aquatic invertebrate Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
and fish. streams.
Toxicity class
V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish)
V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
Dicarboximide V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
Documented effects on
wildlife
Toxic to fish and aquatic
insects.
No documented field
effects on wildlife.
No documented field
effects on wildlife
Best measures to reduce the risk of
exposure
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds,
and streams. Use a buffer zone when
applying near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
mancozeb
(Dithane,
Manzate,
Penncozeb)
propiconazol
e (Tilt)
thiabendazol
e (Mertect)
Ethylenebis
dithio-
carbamate
Triazole
aquatic insects)
V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and effects on wildlife.
aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and effects on wildlife
aquatic insects)
No documented field
No documented field
Benzimidazole V -(Birds and No documented field
mammals) I -(Fish and effects on wildlife
aquatic insects)
triadimefon Triazole
(Bayleton)
thiophanate
methyl
(Topsin-M)
V -(Birds and No documented field
mammals) I -(Fish and effects on wildlife
aquatic insects)
Benzimidazole IV -V -(Birds and
mamals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
No documented field
effects on wildlife
Toxicity class data is based on acute oral rate median lethal dose (LDSO) valu
chemical. The five toxicity classes used are:
Class
1 - Extremely toxic
II - Highly toxic
III - Moderately toxic
IV - Slightly toxic
V - Relatively toxic
LDSO < 40 mg/kg
• LDSO 41-200 mg/kg
LDSO 201-1,000 mg/kg
LDSO 1001-5,000 mg/kg
LDSO > 5,000 mg/kg
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
es for acute toxicity comparisons among
City opeollin9
Agenda Item No.: 3-D
Mtg. Date: 03/25/02
INCORPORATED JANUARY 24, 1957
NO. 2 PORTUGUESE BEND ROAD
ROLLING HILLS, CALIF. 90274
(310) 377-1521
FAX: (310) 377-7288
E-mail: cityofrh@aol.com
MEMORANDUM
TO: CRAIG R. NEALIS, CITY MANAGER
FROM: APRIL HOUSTON, ADMINISTRATWE INTERN
SUBJECT: PESTICIDE ORDINANCE FOLLOW-UP ON NORTHERN
CALIFORNIA CITIES OF SEBASTOPOL AND FAIRFAX
DATE: MARCH 19, 2002
In following up on Councilmember Pernell's inquiries regarding the regulation
of backyard use of pesticides at our City Council meeting six months ago; I spoke
with the City of Sebastopol and the Town of Fairfax.
The City Clerk at Sebastopol said that their proposed ordinance was never
adopted, and has not been reconsidered by the City Council.
However, when speaking with the Town Clerk of Fairfax, she said that their
Pesticide Ordinance has been in effect for a year and it has not resulted in any
citations. She stated that the ordinance is more of a courtesy to residence,
requiring public notification 48 hours prior to pesticide use; and that pesticide
companies are also required to post notifications. She added that there have been
a few requests for pesticide ordinance packets from the community. (I have
attached the brochure packet that they faxed to us).
In addition, the Fairfax Town Clerk indicated that they have been threatened by
pesticide industries for a possible litigation under the provision that state law
regarding pesticides preempts local jurisdiction.
Please let me know if you require further information
ajh
pesticide.memo
Printed on Recycled Paper.
44 Exceptions
• to notification provisions of this chapter
not apply to the following: •
'he use of an aerosol product with a directed
j, in containers of eighteen fluid ounces or
when used to protect individuals from an
inent threat from stinging.and biting insects,
iding venomous spiders, bees, wasps and
ets. This section shall not exempt from
ication the use of any fogger product or
sol product that discharges to a wide are;
'he use of non-volatile insect or rodent bait in
nper resistant container;
The use of boric acid;
I'he use of horticultural soap and oils that do
:ontain synthetic pesticides or synergists;
[he application of a granular pesticide, where
iular.pesticide means any ground applied solid
icicle that is not a dust or powder;
- The application of a pesticide by direct
ction into a plant;
The spot application of a pesticide, where spot
Iication means the application of pesticide in
manually pressurized .or non -pressurized
tainer of thirty-two ounces or less to an area of
and less than nine square feet. N ine square feet
maximum area to be exempted once per year
►rohibit a cumulative exception.
0.50
nualnotification of Ordinance No. 687 shall be
en by the Town to all businesses' in Fairfax that
1 pesticides and all listed Marin County
;finesses that apply pesticides as a regular
vice to their customers.
.10.60 Enforcement:
e first violation of'this chapter within a three
ai• period shall constitute a public nuisance. The
second violation within the same three year period
shall constitute an infraction. The third violation
within the same three. year period shall constitute
a misdemeanor and the penalties will be applied
according to existing law.
8.40.70 Education:
Education will be a key component of success for
this ordinance. In that light it is suggested that
residents refer to the county of Marin and it's
Master Gardener Program to learn about
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques
and how they can utilize such a program at their
residence. Information may also be obtained from
the Marin Stormwater Pollution Prevention
Program (MCSTOPP), the Marin Agricultural
Commissioner's office, and the University of
California Agricultural Extension office in
Novato.
For additional information, or to obtain a
Pesticides Alert Neighbor Notification form,
please contact staff (it Town Hall.
The Pesticides Alert Neighbor Notification
form may be reproduced for compliance with
the noticing requirements.
TOWN OF
FAIRFAX
PESTICIDE
ORDINANCE
142 Bolinas Road
Fairfax, CA 94930
415-453-1584
8T9IE t' Ib
Xt.d Idd .d0 NMOl
FAIRFAX TOWN CODE
TITLE 8
HEALTH AND SAFETY
CHAPTER 8.40
esticides, the Prohibition of Use on
airfax Parks, Open Space Parcels, and
ul lights of Way Including Both Aerial
pi al King and Ground Applications and the
ublic Notice of Pesticide Use on Private
roperty
.40.010 Purpose:
'he use of pesticides with known carcinogens in
Town of Fairfax is of such great concern to
►e Town Council that in order to protect the
ealth, safety and welfare of Fairfax residents this
rdinance is being adopted. The Town Council is
ormalizing Fairfax's official policyofNOTusing
,esticides on Fairfax parks, open space parcels
nc ►lic rights of way including both aerial
pr_, ...g and ground applications; and, requiring
t►blic notice entitled "neighbor notification"
'rior to pesticide use on private property.
tesidents of Fairfax have a right to know when
'esticides are being used in their neighborhood on
Irivate property iii order to allow time to take
irecautions to protect themselves, their family,
nets and property from the hazards of pesticide
:xposure.
The headwaters for Corte Madera Creek are the
Fairfax and San Anselmo (Cascade) Creeks which
traverse the town limits. Coho salmon and
steelhead (native to these creeks) have been listed
as threatened under the Federal endangered
Species Act.
8.40.010 Definition:
Pesticide: For purposes herein, pesticide shall
mean any spray adjuvant, substance or mixture of
substances, which is intended to be used for
defoliating plats, regulating plant growth or for
preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating
any pest which may infest or be detrimental to
vegetation, man, animals or households, or be
present in any agricultural or non-agricultural
environment, including fungicides, herbicides,
insecticides, nematicides, rodenticides, desiccants,
defoliants, and plant growth regulators.
8.40.30
The use of pesticides on Fairfax parks, open space
parcels and public rights of way and buildings
owned and maintained by the Town of Fairfax, is
hereby prohibited
8.40.31 Use:
The "use" shall be defined as both aerial and
ground spraying and or dusting and all other
ground application.
8.40.32 Exceptions:
The only exceptions to the use of pesticides under
section 8.40.30 are the same as those found in
section 8.40.44; and, in addition an exception may
be approved by a 2/3's super majority vote of the
full Town council with a mandatory finding that
the health, safety and welfare of the community is
so threatened that an emergency exists, that no
reasonable alternative is available and the
prohibition of the use of pesticides would ,create
the potential for allowing a significant adverse
impact on the town. •
8.40.40 Neighbor notification:
Prior to the use of pesticides on private property
notice shall be required (see listed exception,
Section 8.40.44)
8.40.41 Timing of Notice:
Neighbors of the affected properties shall receive
a minimum of 48 hours notice prior to the
application of pesticides.
8.40.42 Type of notices required:
A visible 8 '/, x 11 Pesticides Alert notice on a
form approved by the Town of Fairfax shall be
posted in a conspicuous place on the front of the
property where the pesticide application will
occur and an approved written notice delivered 48
hours in advance either by a mail service or a
hand delivered 8 '/2 x 11 notice attached to an
accessible front door or front gate if locked of
every separate residential unit within 150 feet of
the posted property. The notice shall include the
address and approximate location of the pesticide
application, date and estimated time of use, the
type of pesticide being used and
an appropriate 800 number for information
regarding the product content and potential
impacts. The notice shall remain posted for 48
hours after pesticide use.
8.40.43 Distance of notification coverage:
All separate residential units within 150 feet of
the parcel where pesticide application is to occur
shall receive proper written notification as set
forth in section 8.40.42.
4m
•
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8T9TE909Tb
XV.delIdd J0 NM01
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'N
Ciiy RAn9 �ue�
INCORPORATED JANUARY 24, 1957
NO. 2 PORTUGUESE BEND ROAD
ROLLING HILLS, CALIF. 90274
(310) 377-1521
FAX: (310) 377-7288
E-mail: cityotrh@aol.com
MEMORANDUM
TO: CRAIG R. NEALIS, CITY MANAGER
FROM: LINDSEY BLEY, ADMINISTRATIVE INTERN
SUBJECT: NOTICES OF PESTICIDE USE
DATE: SEPTEMBER 10, 2001
The City of Sabastopol recently proposed an ordinance to require notification to
neighbors prior to pesticide use. As of September 5 nothing had been decided,
but the city is considering putting together a citizen committee to help decide
whether an ordinance is necessary. However, the Town of Fairfax has an
approved Pesticide Ordinance to require the notice of pesticide use. Overall, the
two ordinances have the same basic requirements. The ordinances contain the
following information:
Timing of notice: Properties must be notified 48 hours in advanced prior
to pesticide use.
Type of notice: A Pesticides Alert notice must be posted in front of the
property where the pesticides will be applied on a visible 8-i/2 by 11 sheet
approved by the city. The notice must also be either hand delivered or
sent through mail service 48 hours in advance to any residential unit
within 150 from the posted property.
Included in the notice: The notice should include the address and
location of the pesticide application, date, time, type of pesticide, and an
800 number that would provide information on the pesticide being used.
Exceptions: -non aerosol products with a direct spray in a container of 18
fluid ounces or less, when used to prevent individuals from
an imminent threat from stinging or biting insects.
-The use of non-volatile insect or rodent bait in a tamper
resistant container.
-The use of boric acid.
-The use of horticultural soap and oils that do not contain
synthetic pesticides or synergists.
-Application of granular pesticides ( not a dust or a powder)
Printed on Recycled Paper.
fri •4JY—
-Application of pesticides through direct injection into a
plant.
-Spot application of pesticides, in a manually pressurized
container of thirty two ounces or less to an area of less than
nine square feet.
Enforcement: Within a three year period, the first violation will constitute
a public nuisance, the second violation will constitute an infraction, and
the third violation will constitute a misdemeanor and the penalties will be
applied according to existing law.
Note: Differences in the two Ordinances
• .. The proposed ordinance for the City of Sebastopol requires neighbor
notification prior to the use of brand name products such as Round -up and
Weeds be Gone, on private property.
• The Town of Fairfax requires the notice to remain posted for 48 hours after
the application of pesticides.
Please let me know if you require further information.
lcb
pesticide.memo
TO: CRAIG R. NEALIS, CITY MANAGER
FROM: LINDSEY BLEY, ADMINISTRATIVE INTERN
SUBJECT: PESTICIDES
DATE: SEPTEMBER 5, 2001
The following is a summary of the information contained in the attached packet
"Wildlife and Pesticides: A practical guide to reducing the risk."
The packet includes information on the risks of using pesticides and the harmful
effects that pesticides have on humans, livestock, and wildlife when proper care
is not exercised during application. Wildlife may be exposed to pesticides
through contaminated food or water, breathing pesticides, or even by skin
absorption. The magnitude of the effect depends on; the pesticides toxicity and
the quantity used. There are many different kinds of pesticides; however,
according to the packet insecticides pose the greatest threat to wildlife. The
insecticides that are currently used are either the organophosphate or carbamate
type. The packet goes on to explain that Wildlife may experience lethal or
sublethal effects without direct exposure by destroying or disrupting a food
source.
Included in the packet of information are ways to reduce the risks involved with
pesticide use. There are a number of suggestions of what to do before the
application of pesticides, what to look for to avoid any potential hazards, and
even a specific method that is referred to as being the best method of reducing
the risks to wildlife, the integrated pest management (IPM) practices. Under IPM
pesticides are only used when other methods are not successful. These methods
include; crop rotation, cultivation, planting resistant varieties, planting weed and
disease free °seed, and using the natural controls present.
Overall, the packet contains some important information pertaining to proper
pesticide use, including a detailed list of what to do and not to do when applying
pesticides.
15 rn�e.2o�
kook:. --.c,' ��-
4
Wildlife and Pesticides: A practical guide to
reducing the risk
• Introduction
• Potential Hazards to Wildlife
• Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
• Assessing Pesticide Risk to Wildlife
• Reducing Pesticide Exposure Risk
• Pesticide Toxicity to Wildlife
• Summary
• Toxicity Tables
Pesticides are widely used in agriculture today. Producers use pesticides because they are effective and generally reasonably
priced. The benefits include reduced yield losses and timesavings to the producer, and lower food and fiber costs for consumer.
There are some downside risks to pesticide use. Pesticide poisonings of people, livestock, and wildlife have occurred when
proper care was not exercised. Pesticide applicators must be very careful to avoid these risks.
Pesticides, when used with good judgement and care in accordance with label instructions, benefit both agriculture and the
environment. Proper use ensures that food and wildlife production objectives can both be realized.
Every pesticide applicator must accept responsibility to prevent or minimize the effects of pesticide applications on nontarget
organisms. There are several things you as an applicator can do to reduce the risk of pesticide exposure to nontarget plants,
. animals and habitats.
Potential Hazards to Wildlife
In order to better protect wildlife from the risks of pesticide exposure it is necessary to understand what effects pesticides may
have on wildlife.
Several hundred different pesticides are used in agriculture today. Each one of these products has different characteristics that
can affect the risk posed to different types of wildlife. While a particular pesticide may pose no harm to mammals, it may cause
severe harm to aquatic or bird life. Knowing these differences will greatly assist you in making the proper pesticide use
decision.
There is much documentation showing that wildlife can be harmed by particular pesticides. The documentation includes
laboratory toxicity studies on various types of wildlife, field trials that must be performed in order to register the pesticide, and
reports of incidents of wildlife poisoning.
In Oregon in the 1970s, aldrin and mercury treated seed grain killed thousands of wild geese and other wildlife. Thirty-six
Canada geese were killed in 1988 as a result of an application of carbofuran (Furadan) and disulfoton (Di-Syston) in Idaho.
Phorate (Thimet) was involved in the deaths of hundreds of waterfowl and several bald and golden eagles in South Dakota m
1989.
Many of the incidents involving wildlife kills result from misuse or illegal applications. One such incident occurred in 1990
when an applicator in North Dakota illegally applied carbofuran (Furadan) to carcasses for predator control. He was found
guilty of killing several forms of wildlife, possibly including a bald eagle.
Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
Pesticides' effects on wildlife may be lethal, sublethal, acute, chronic, habitat related, or there may be no effect. In general the
risk a pesticide poses to wildlife is related to the pesticide type, its toxicity, the proximity of the application to wildlife habitat,
the dose, application rate, number of applications, the persistence of the pesticide in the environment, and its ability to
concentrate in the wildlife food chain. These factors interact with food habits and behavior of individual wildlife species to
produce a response.
Pesticide Type
In general, insecticides are more toxic to fish and wildlife than herbicides or fungicides. Some herbicides may harm wildlife by
damaging the wildlife habitat.
Many of the insecticides currently used are either the organophosphate or carbamate type. These insecticides work by
interfering with the central nervous system of insects. The central nervous system of fish or wildlife may be affected the same
way. The toxicity of the various organophosphate and carbamate insecticides ranges from slightly toxic products to products
that are highly toxic. The more toxic products are generally restricted use pesticides, which require applicators to be certified
by their state regulatory agency to purchase and apply products.
Synthetic pyrethroid insecticide use has been increasing. These synthesized insecticides are based on naturally occurring
pesticides, but have been modified to improve performance and persistence. Synthetic pyrethroids also work by interfering
with the central nervous system. Synthetic pyrethroids are low to medium in toxicity to mammals and birds because they can
quickly detoxify and excrete them`However, fish and aquatic invertebrates can not quickly detoxify or excrete synthetic
pyrethroids, so they are highly susceptible to poisoning by these products.
Herbicides and fungicides are generally low to moderately toxic to wildlife. Particular herbicides can have a large impact on
the plant life making up the wildlife habitat.
Direct Effects
Wildlife can be exposed to pesticides directly by eating contaminated food or water, breathing pesticides, or by skin
absorption.
The type and magnitude of the effect depends on two factors, the_pesticide toxicity and pesticide quantity (dose). If exposure
causes the animal's death, it is referred to as a lethal effect.
Young birds that eat or are fed pesticide treated insects are at great risk of suffering lethal pesticide exposure effects. Sublethal
insecticide effects occur when damage to the central nervous system causes an animal to behave in a unusual manner. This
behavior may affect the animal's ability to survive or reproduce. Some typical sublethal responses in birds exposed to
pesticides include the inability to sing properly, establish a breeding territory, or attract a mate. Adults may be unable to care
for themselves or their young properly, resulting in death to the nestlings or increased chance of predation.
The lethal and sublethal effects of pesticides on wildlife and fish may occur from one exposure over a short time period (acute)
or they may result from exposures to small amounts over a longer time period (chronic). Pesticides commonly used today do
not persist as long in the environment as pesticides used years ago. The tradeoff is that the acute toxicity of some of these
modern pesticides is higher than the older, more persistent chemicals.
Indirect Effects
Wildlife in general, and birds in particular, may also experience lethal or sublethal effects without being directly exposed to a
pesticide. This typically occurs when a pesticide application destroys or disrupts food sources such as insects. Insects supply
the protein necessary for growing birds. Studies indicate that the growth of young birds can be stunted in areas where
insecticides have been used heavily, resulting in insect populations too low to meet young bird protein growth demands. Fish
that feed on aquatic insects and animals may also show stunted growth in areas of heavy insecticide use because their primary
food sources are killed. Inadequate diets also can affect fish reproduction and survival. Herbicides can reduce the amount of
cover and make the habitat less suitable for nesting.
Assessing Pesticide Risk to Wildlife
To properly assess the need for pesticides and the risk to wildlife, information must be gathered on the condition of the crop,
the pest situation, characteristics of candidate pesticides, present and expected weather, and some knowledge about the kinds
and behavior of wildlife living in the area. The importance of good judgement, practical experience and common sense cannot
be overemphasized. Prior to each and every pesticide application, the overall situation should be evaluated so that the expected
benefits of a pesticide application are realized and potential hazards are minimized. Good information is necessary to make
good judgements.
Monitor Fields Regularly
Field scouting must be done. It is important to be aware of the status of the field, the crop stage, general health, and yield
potential of the crop, as well as the number and growth stage of the various pests that are present. Careful scouting will reveal
any wildlife that may also be present. Most pests and most wildlife do not occur uniformly throughout a field. Drawing a map
of the field showing the locations of pest populations and wildlife along with recognizable landmarks can aid you in
developing a pest control plan that avoids possible effects on wildlife.
Identify Wildlife Signs, Seasons, and Habitats
One way to ensure that wildlife will not be impacted by a pesticide is to make the application when wildlife are not present.
Most wildlife signs can be easily determined while scouting the fold. Virtually all agricultural crops will support some type of
wildlife. A.wide assortment of wildlife will likely be visible during most scouting trips.
Areas where wildlife are most likely to be located are field perimeters and other areas where fields may come into contact with
windbreaks, wetlands, livestock watering ponds, fence rows, abandoned farmsteads, grasslands or odd areas.
Take note of areas where you actually see animals. Other evidence that wildlife are present and using the area includes signs
such as tracks, droppings, or foraging evidence.
If numerous wildlife signs arc present, pesticide applicators can reduce potential impacts to wildlife by marking such areas on a
field map or leaving a flag in that area of a field. When spraying around sensitive areas, leave a buffer zone of at least one-half
the width of a sprayer boom. Another way to minimize potential impacts to wildlife is to restrict spraying activities in these
fields between the hours of 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. During this period, many wildlife will seek the protective cover of cropland,
particularly taller row crops, as they wait out the day prior to beginning evening and early morning foraging activities.
Critical Reproductive Periods and Habitats
Most wildlife reproduction occurs from May 1 to late June and early July. This is perhaps the most critical for many of our
resident and migratory wildlife and fish. To complete this reproduction, animals seek out suitable habitats.
These habitats can include wetlands, windbreaks and shelterbelts, fencerows, rangelands, and croplands. Wildlife typically
nest, birth, feed, and rear their young in areas that provide not only some type of protective coyer from the elements and
potential predators, but also sources of food.
The transition zones between habitat types, where one plant community changes to another, are preferred. These edges usually
produce the greatest variety of food plants, insects and seeds. This allows wildlife such as grouse, pheasants, and deer to feed
without venturing too far from protective cover. For this reason, most upland gamebird nests can be found in or near such
edges.
Wetlands are important feeding and brood rearing habitats for waterfowl. Insecticides applied near wetlands by ground
sprayers or aircraft can enter the habitat through drift or runoff and contaminate these areas. Depending on the insecticide type,
food sources may be destroyed, causing sublethal effects or a direct loss of young wildlife.
Similarly, shelterbelts and windbreaks are important habitats for many songbirds. Herbicide drift that results in injury to trees
and other vegetation can impair the ability of such habitats to provide safe, secure nesting sites. Insecticide drift can kill
nestlings and adult birds, as well as contaminate important insect food sources.
Reducing Pesticide Exposure Risk
Regular field scouting and a pest control plan should be a part of every producer's operation. Pests are best controlled by
manipulating cropping conditions to put pests at a disadvantage to the crop or beneficial organisms. Man and his crops are in
competition with pests, and ALL available methods for controlling pests should be considered, not just pesticides.
Eliminate Unnecessary Pesticide Applications Through IPM
.Few applicators knowingly apply unnecessary pesticides because pesticides cost money. Every applicator should ask, will this
application pay for itself? Growers should not substitute pesticides for good management. Pesticides are necessary but should
only he part of a total pest control program, not the entire program.
The -best method of reducing risks to wildlife is to use integrated` pest management (IPM)' practices. IPM incorporates cultural
methods such as crop rotation, date of planting, variety choices, and seeding rates with other methods of pest control to
mammta •pest populations at tolerable levels. Under IPM, pesticides are used only when other methods are not successful and
pest damage to crops might otherwise exceed the cost of control.
Many pest management practices can help reduce the need for pesticides. Some additional control methods include crop
competition, crop rotation, tillage and cultivation, sanitation, planting resistant varieties, planting weed and disease free seed,
and using the natural controls present when possible.
A good example of non -pesticide control is a competitive crop. An early established, well developed crop can do much to help
control weeds. Plants emerging first have a competitive advantage over later emerging plants. Anything done to get quick crop
emergence that evenly covers the ground early will have a big impact on weeds. Later emerging weeds are ata tremendous
disadvantage and may not cause yield and quality losses. The competitiveness of weeds and crops differs between species.
Weeds such as wild oats, wild mustard, and kochia are very competitive, while others, such' as redroot pigweed and foxtails are
generally less competitive. Some crops ranked in order of decreasing competitiveness are rye, barley, conventional height
wheat, semidwvarf wheat, and flax.
Choose the Pesticide Least Toxic to Non -target Organisms
Choose the least toxic pesticide that will control the pest. Often more than one pesticide is registered for control of a particular
pest in a particular crop. Take time to compare pesticides and make sure you choose the one BEST suited for the job. Many
times the best choice will be the least expensive treatment, but that is not always the case. Sometimes the best choice would be
a higherpriced pesticide with fewer risks for nontarget plants and animals.
Pesticide Toxicity to Wildlife
Pesticide applicators can plan a pesticide application that is less toxic to wildlife by examining pesticide toxicity and potential
for environmental injury to wildlife and wildlife habitats. This information can be found in tables presented in the back of this
publication.
When an applicator has identified the specific crop pest situation and checked local crop production guides, a pesticide can be
selected that minimizes risk to nontarget plants and animals and still achieves the desired level of control.
If the selected pesticide still poses a high threat to wildlife, the applicator would at least be aware of the -risk and can take the
steps to minimize any potential threats by following recommendations in this publication.
Read the Pesticide Label
Certain pesticides pose a risk to wildlife or the environment. Some products are classified as RESTRICTED USE
PESTICIDES because of.environmental hazards. Restricted use pesticides should only be applied by a certified applicator who_
has been properly trained. •
Pesticides that pose environmental risks are labeled to warn the applicator what the risks could be and what steps should be
taken to protect people, animals and the environment. These.wamings can be found in the "Precautionary Statements'.section
of the label. The precautionary section is divided into subsections dealing with "Hazards to Humans or Domestic Animals,"
Environmental Hazard" and "Physical or Chemical Hazard." The risks to wildlife and the environment may be found in
the "Environmental Hazard" section. It is a violation of federal law to apply pesticides in any way that is not consistent with
label instructions.
Hazards to Wildlife
If a particular pesticide is especially hazardous to wildlife, it will, be stated on the label. For example:
• . This product is highly toxic to bees.
• This product is toicic.to fish.
• This product is toxic to birds and other wildlife.
The label may indicate that the product causes undesirable effects in the environment. In this case, the precautionary statement
may tell what to avoid doing. Labeling may•mdIcatelimitations.imposed.to pr..otect;w,ildli.fe',yinclu'di g endangered -species.
These limitations may include reduced rates, restrictions on types of application, or a ban on the pesticide's use witliiiTthe
species range. The labclial— ^o ay mdicato-additional--sources-of information-on-proper=application=methods-to-reduce-hazardc:
These statements explain special hazards that the pesticides may pose. They should+help when choosing the safest product for a
particular job and serve as a reminder to take extra precautions.
General Environmental Statements
General-environmental_Tstatements:appearon=nearlyev—e pesticiderlabel:as:reminders-fof_commonusense-actions-neededto
avoid contaminatingtheenvironment3The-absence=ofanyonall ofithese:statements.DOES=N:OTYchangeahezequirement.to
dakezadequate:precautionsa
Sometimes the statements will follow a "specific toxicity statement" and provide practical steps to avoid harm to wildlife.
Examples of general environmental statements include:
• Do not apply when runoff is likely to occur.
• Do not apply when weather conditions favor drift from treated areas.
• Do not contaminate water when cleaning equipment or disposing of wastes.
• Keep out of any body of water.
• Do not allow drift on desirable plants or trees.
• Do not apply when bees are likely to be in the area.
• Do not apply where the water table is close to the surface.
Note:ILbis:the responsibility -of every-peshctde-applicator-tolread-and=follow:theLLlabel-directions:
Use the Lowest Effective Rate
Many times the label will allow a range of rates to -control a particular pest: Differences in pest size or stage, pest populations,
t'and environmental conditions can affect the amount of pesticide needed. Often pesticide rates at the lower end of the rate range
can be used when pests are in sensitive growth stages, at lower populations and the weather and growing conditions are
favorable.
Use Buffer Zones
Anarea between•the area sprayed and a sensitive area is called a buffer zone. This area can be a grass strip or may even be part
of the crop that is not treated. This buffer area will help trap pesticides and prevent them from entering sensitive areas by spray
drift or by runoff
Spot Spraying
Many. times a pest is located only in a portion of the field. Spraying only the area where the pest is found, leaving the rest of the
(field untreated, reduces potential risks and saves time and money.
Begin Spraying In the Middle of the Field
Most wildlife will be present near the edges of a field. Spraying the field by starting in the middle of the field will allow
wildlife time to escape or move out of the field area.
Trap Areas
Some farmers are experimenting with the use of trap areas. Farmers will seed these areas with an early maturing crop variety
ahead of normal planting dates. These areas may attract pests and if pest populations develop in the trap area, a pesticide
application can be made. Controlling pests in this manner can reduce chances that pesticides will be required on the rest of the
field.
Check Weather Conditions
A -good applicator always checks the weather conditions before spraying. Weather conditions can greatly affect the pesticide
exposure through spray drift or runoff. Don't apply pesticides just before rains because pesticides could run off the treated field
with excess rainwater and potentially contaminate sensitive areas. Avoid spraying when weather conditions could cause spray
drift into sensitive areas.
Avoid Spray Drift
Spray drift can cause damage to wildlife or wildlife habitat. The following measures are available to greatly reduce drift,
Avoid spraying on windy days
Check the wind speed and direction. If conditions could cause spray drift into sensitive areas, don't
spray. If an application must be made you must take every precaution you can to prevent drift
from entering sensitive areas.
Another weather condition to avoid is a temperature inversion. Temperature inversions occur
when cooler air is near the ground and is beneath warmer air. Very small spray droplets will
remain suspended in the air and can move some distance.
Use a nonvolatile formulation
Some pesticides are volatile and can form vapors, usually on warmer (greater than 70 F) days,
which can drift into susceptible areas. If there is an alternative pesticide or formulation that is not'
volatile and will control the pest, it should be used instead.
Increase Droplet Size
Spray nozzles produce spray droplets of many different sizes. Larger droplets are heavier and drift
less. Practices that increase droplet size will reduce drift, such as increasing nozzle size or water
volume, reducing spray pressure or using a drift retardant.
Use Larger Nozzle
Larger nozzles allow you to apply the same volume of spray with less spray pressure. Spray
droplets will be larger than those produced by a smaller nozzle with higher pressure.
Increase Water Volume
Increasing the water volume will decrease drift because water droplets will be larger and will tend
to drift less.
Use the Lowest Practical Pressure
Lower spray pressure will result in larger spray droplets that drift less than smaller droplets. If
spray pressure is reduced too much the spray pattern that results will not be uniform. Newer
nozzles such as the "LP" or "XR" type are designed to produce uniform spray patterns with
pressures of 15 to 20 pounds per square inch.
Use a Drift Retardant
A drift retardant will help reduce spray drift by increasing the size of spray droplets. Larger
droplets tend to drift less than small droplets.
Reduce Spray Boom Height
Set spray booms at the lowest height that will give uniform coverage. The closer the boom is to
the spray target the less chance there is for drift.
Use a Shielded Sprayer
Using a shielded sprayer will help reduce spray drift by protecting the spray from wind. Shielded
sprayers allow a wider selection of spraying times during the day and more total spraying time per
day. These time savers can be used to more precisely target crop areas and avoid sensitive areas.
More information on spray drift can be found at your state's Cooperative Extension Service county
office.
Summary
The responsibility to prevent or minimize the effects of pesticide applications on nontarget organisms rests with every pesticide
applicator. Information concerning the proper use and application of a pesticide can be found on the product label.
Reducing the risk of pesticide exposure to nontarget organisms requires applicators to incorporate crop scouting and IPM
,techniques with a knowledge of wildlife life cycles and habitats in developing a farm pesticide application plan: Development.
of such a plan will insure not only the most cost effective means for controlling crop pest situations, but also result in the
greatest reduction of risk of pesticide exposure' to wildlife.
Resource Material
Apply Pesticides Correctly: A Guide for Commercial Applicators, U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Commercial and Private Applicator Core Manual: Initial Certification, September 1989, Cooperative Extension Service,
Michigan State University.
Dexter, A. Herbicide Spray Drift. 1986. NDSU Extension Service. A-657 revised.
Extoxnet Cooperative Extension Offices, Comell, U of Calif., Michigan State, Oregon State Univ.
Facemire, F. Charles, 1991. Impact of agricultural chemicals on wetland habitats and associated biota with special
reference to migratory birds. B 780, SDSU, Brookings, SD. 65 pp.
Herbicide Handbook of the Weed Science Society of America. Sixth Ed., 1989, Weed Science Society of America,
Champagne, Illinois, 61820.
McBride,.D.K., D.E. Peterson, H.A. Lamey, 1988, Persistence and Mobility of Pesticides in Soil and Water, NDSU
Extension Service. E-49, NDSU Fargo, ND 58105
Pesticide Applicator Training Manual: Core Manual, 2nd Ed., Chemicals -Pesticides Program, Cornell University, 1990. D.
Rutz, Director, R. Gardner, W. Smith.
Wildlife and Pesticides: A practical guide to reducing the risk
(continued)
Toxicity Tables
These tables provide toxicity comparisons for commonly used pesticides. These comparisons are intended to give
applicators the information needed to reduce the risk of an application to wildlife.
INSECTICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
acephate Organo-
(Orthene) phosphate
Aldicarb Carbamate
(Temik)
azinphos Organo-
,uethyl phosphate
(Guthion)
Bacillus Microbial
Thuringiensis
(various)
carbaryl Carbamate
(Sevin)
carbofuran Carbamate
(Furdan)
chlorpyrifos
(Lorsban)
diazinon
(various)
Organo-
phosphate
Organo-
phosphate
dimethoate Organo-
(Cygon) phosphate
Toxicity class
III -(Birds and
mammals) I-
(Fish/aquatic insects)
Documented effects on
wildlife
Moderate to slight acute
oral toxicity to birds and
mammals Reduction in
ChE activity.
Best measures to reduce the risk of exposure
Increase water volumes to reduce drift. Avoid use
areas of high bird numbers. Use lowest
recommended effective rates. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, ponds, streams and
rivers.
1 -Birds, fish, mammals Bird and mammal mortality Proper incorporation of granules. Consider
and aquatic insects) reported after ingestion of weather and terrain to avoid runoff potentials into
exposed granules. One of water areas.
the most toxic carbamate
pesticides. Extremely
toxicto aquatic organisms.
I -(Mammals) I1 -IV Extremely toxic to Scout fields to determine the presence of wildlife.
(Birds) 11 - mammals in formulations Avoid or delay direct application when wildlife is
(Fish/aqurtic insects) containing a high present. Exercise caution to reduce the risk of
V -(Birds and
mammals)
III -IV -(Birds III -
(Mammals) I -(Aquatic
insects)
1 -(All)
I -II -(Birds) II -III- Highly toxic to mammals
(Mammls) I -(Fish and and birds through oral
aquatic insects) Extremely toxic to fish and
aquatic insects.
III -(Mammals) I- Extremely toxic to birds
(Birds, fish and aquatic and moderately toxic to
insects) mammals. Toxic to bees,
fish, and other aquatic
organisms.
I -(Birds, fish, and Moderate acute oral
aquatic insects) III- toxicity to mammals.
percentage of active
ingredient. Highly toxic to
fish and aquatic insects:
No documented effects on
wildlife.
direct, drift, or runoff applications to water or
wetland areas. Avoid contaminating ponds,lakes,
and streams.
Apply according to label directions.
Moderate acute/chronic • Avoid direct applications to wetlands and other
toxicity to birds, fish, and waters. Reduce potentials for drift and runoff by
mammals. Low persistence. using buffer zones.
Toxic to aquatic insects.
Highly toxic to all forms of Avoid applying this chemical when wildlife is
wildlife even when applied present. Use buffer zones when applying near
at lowest recommended wetlands, other waters, and wooded areas. Use an
effective rate. alternate pestiicide. (Granular carbofuran has
been voluntarily cancelled and will be phased out
by 1994. Flowable is still registered.)
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Do not apply when wildlife are present.
Applications should be made only after a careful
evaluation. Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds,
lakes, and streams.
Avoid application (direct, drift or runoff) on water
areas/wetlands. Use buffer zones near water and
(Mammals)
disulfoton Organo- I -(All)
(Di-Syston) phosphate
endosulfan
(Thiodan)
esfenvalerate
(Asana)
Extremely toxic to birds,
fish, and other aquatic
organisms. Pheasants are
particularly sensitive to this
pesticide.
Extremely toxic to birds,
mammals, fish, bee and
aquatic organisms.
Secondary poisoning in
birds eating treated insects
has been reported.
shelterbelts.
Proper field scouting to include a careful
evaluation of potential wildlife exposure will
reduce the risk. Do not apply when wildlife is
present.
Chlorinated I -(Fish and aquatic Fish kills associated with Caution should be taken to avoid risks associated
Hydrocarbon insects) I1 -IV (Birds) I- contaminated agricultural with agricultural runoff The use of buffer zone
II (Mammals) runoff. Concentrates of will reduce risk associated with use of this
<1.3 ppm were sufficient to pesticide. •
cause mortality. Highly
toxic to aquatic
organisms/insects.
Pyrethroid I (Fish) IV -(Bird and Highly toxic to fish, Measures to reduce the risks to wildlife. Avoid
mammals) aquatic insects. No reported applications (direct, drift, runoff in water bodies,/
parathion Organo- • I -(All)
(methy ethyl) phosphate
(Penncap-M
.various)
fenvalerate Pyrethroid
(Pydrin)
fonofos Organo-
(Dyfonate) phosphate
malathion
(Cythion)
methidathion Organo-
(Supracide
OP)
phorate
(Thimet)
I -(Fish) N-V(Bird and
mammals)
I(AII)
toxicity in birds/mammals.
Ethyl and methyl parathion
are extremely toxic to
birds, mammals through
both acute oral and dermal
exposure at recommended
application rates. These
chemicals are highly toxic
to bees fish and other
aquatic organisms.
See Esfenvalerate
wetlands. Use lowest recommended effective -
rates and buffer zones near water.
Prior to applying parathion a thorough scouting of
the field should be conducted. Field applications
of parathion should be made prior to 10 a.m. or
after 4 p,m. to minimize drift and leave buffer
zone near critical wildlife habitats such as
windbreaks and wetlands. Do not apply when
wildlife are present.
See esfenvalerate.
Highly toxic to fish, Complete incorporation of the product into the
mammals and birds due to soil will minimize wildlife exposure risks.
chemical action, high field Consider weather and terrain to avoid runoff
use and relatively long contamination.
persistence. Used as a
granular treatment.
Organo- III -(Birds and No documented effects on Avoid application (direct, drift or runoff) on water
phosphate mammals) I -(Fish and wildlife (birds/ mammals) areas/wetlands. Use near buffer zones near water.
aquatic insects) when used at recommended
application rates. Toxic to
bees, fish and other aquatic
organism. •
II(All) High acute oral toxicity to Careful scouting of field to identify the presence
phosphate
Organo- I(All)
phosphate
birds/mammals, bees and
fish.
Extremely high oral and
dermal toxicity has been
documented in birds and
mammals after exposure to
pesticide. Wildlife deaths
reported are related to
ingestion of improperly
incorporated granules, in
areas subject to flooding
and run off. Uptake of
chemical in plants may also
of wildlife and the subsequent avoidance of such
area and critical wildlife habitats during
,application will minimize wildlife exposure risks.
In areas subject to flooding and runoff and where
wildlife are present in large concentrations
(migrations) the use of this pesticide should be
carefully evaluated. The pesticide must be
properly incorporated.
terbufos
(Counter)
Organo- I(All)
phosphate
permethin Synthetic
(Ambush pyrethroid
Pounce)
HERBICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
2,4-D Phenoxy
2,4-D Amine
2,4-D Ester (see 2,4,-D)
acifluorfen Biphenol
(Blazer) ether
alachlor Acetanilide
(various)
atrazine Triazine
(various)
bentazon Benzothia-
(various) diazoles
I -(Fish and aquatic
insects) V -(Birds and
mammals)
cause wildlife exposure.
Extremely toxic to lab
mammals. Potential for
greatest impact due to
ingestion of granules.
Extremely toxic to aquatic
organisms. No documented
field effects on birds or
mammals.
Toxicity class Documented effects on wildlife
III -IV -(Birds and Moderately toxic to birds and
mammals) II -
(Fish and other
aquatic
organisms)
III -V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I-
II(Fish and
aquatic insects)
mammals. Highly toxic to insects,
fish. A reduction of birds broad-
leaved plants from applications can
result in a reduction in the nest
numbers of waterfowl and other
upland nesting birds. Use of a non
toxic oil vehicle during application
increases toxicity of the chemical to
egg embryos. Spray drift can harm
wooded areas.
No documented impacts on birds or
mammals. Toxic to aquatic
organisms. May damage susceptible
foliage (cover).
IV -V -(Birds and No documented impacts on birds and
mammals) I -(Fish mammals. Highly toxic to aquatic
insects and fish.
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V -(Birds and Slightly toxic to birds at high
mammals) IV -
(Fish)
HI -IV -(Birds,
mammals and
fish)
bromoxyni Benzonitrile I -(Fish and
1 (Buctril) aquatic insects)
II -IV -(Mammals
and birds)
clopyralid Pyridine IV -V -(Birds and
(Stinger) mammals) II -
concentrations. Indirect effects on
aquatic fauna may result as the
chemical impacts aquatic plant
species. Toxic to fish and aquatic
invertebrates at high concentrations.
No documented impacts on birds and
mammals. Moderately toxic to
Rainbow trout.
Extremely toxic to aquatic
invertebrates No documented impacts
on birds and mammals.
No documented impacts on wildlife.
Spillage, failure to cover granules, heavy rains or
high winds could expose granules increasing the
risk. If such conditions exist do not apply if
wildlife is present. In areas subject to flooding
and runoff and where wildlife are present in large
concentrations (migrations) the use of this
pesticide should be carefully evaluated. The
pesticide must be properly incorporated. Risk can
be reduced if applied as an in -furrow or modified
in -furrow application.
Prevent direct, applications or drift and runoff
into wetlands and other water. Use a buffer zone
if applied near water areas.
Best measures to reduce the risk of exposure
In areas where waterfowl and other upland nest
apply with a water based spray mixture. Spot
spray where possible to reduce impacts on
potential nest cover. Avoid spray drift. Apply
amine formulation where drift is a concern. Use a
buffer zone when applied in wooded areas, or
near water.
Avoid spray drift. Use buffer zones near surface
water. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
Avoid spray drift and runoff contamination of
wetlands and other water areas by using buffer
zones. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
To minimize the impacts of agricultural runoff
carrying this chemical into wetlands and other
waters employ buffer zones. Use at lowest
effective rate.Use with caution in areas where
groundwater contamination is likely. Avoid
contaminating ponds, lakes, wetlands, and
streams.
Use buffer zones to reduce potential impacts to
aquatic habitats. Do not apply when conditions
favor drift. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating ponds,
lakes, wetlands, and streams.
Use buffer zones if applying near water areas.
Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes, wetlands, and
ethalflurali Dinitro-
n aniline
(Sonalan)
fenoxapro Aryloxy-
p (Whip) phenoxy-
(Option) propionic
Acid
fluazifop Aryloxy-
(Fusilade) phenoxy-
propionic
Acid
glyphosate Amino Acid
(Roundup)
(Rodeo) Amino Acid
cyanazine Triazine
(Bladex)
cycloate Thio-
(Ro-Neet) carbamate
desmedop Carbamate
ham
(Betanex)
dicamba Benzoic
(Banvel) Acid
diclofop
(Hoelon)
Aryloxy-
phenoxy-
propionic
Acid
(Fish)
11I -IV -(Birds and
mammals)
V -(Birds) IV-
(Mammals)1-
(Fish and aquatic
organisms)
IV -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects).
IV -(Birds
mammals, fish,
and aquatic
insects)
V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I -
(Fish, and aquatic
insects)
difenzoqu Bipyridilium IV -V -(Birds) IV -
at (Mammals) II -
(Avenge) (Fish) I -(Aquatic
insects)
EPTC Thio- . IV -V (Birds and
(Eptam) carbamate mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -
(Fish)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and No documented field effects on
mammals) I -(Fish wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
and aquatic mammals.
insects)
IV -V (Birds and No documented field effects on
mammals) I -(Fish wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
and aquatic mammals.
insects)
III -IV Fish and
aquatic insects.
imaza- Imidazoline IV -V (Birds and
methabenz mammals) II -
(Assert) (Fish and aquatic
insects)
MCPA- Phenoxy- III -IV (Birds and
amine carboxylic mammals) I-
MCPA- Acid I11(Fish and
ester aquatic insects)
metsulfuro Sulfonyl IV-V'(Birds and
n (Ally) Urea mammals) II -III
(Fish and aquatic
insects)
Nicosulfur Sulfonyl- IV -V -(Birds and
on mammals) IV -
Rodeo is slightly toxic to aquatic
organisms unlike its counterpart
Round -up.
No documented field effects on
Slightly toxic to aquatic invertebrates.
No documented impacts in birds or
mammals.
No documented field effects in
wildlife. Low acute oral and dermal
toxicity in laboratory mammals. Toxic
to fish.
No documented field effects in
wildlife. Low toxicity to laboratory
animals. Toxic to fish.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Slightly toxic to aquatic
invertebrates.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
streams.
Use buffer zones if applying near wetland or
other waters. Use caution in areas where
groundwater contamination is likely.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Avoid spray drift.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
spray drift.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and streams.
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Use drift precautions. Apply the amine
formulation in areas where drift is a concern.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Avoid spray drift.
Apply according to label directions. Avoid spray
drift.
paraquat
(Cyclone)
(Gramoxo
ne- Extra)
pendimeth Dinitro-
alin
(Prowl)
picloram
(Tordon)
(Fish and aquatic
invertabrates)
Bipyridilium I -(Fish and
aquatic
organisms) 11 -111 -
(waterfowl
embroyos,
mammals/bird)
IV -(Birds and
anilien mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
Pyridine IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -
(Fish)
primisulfu Sulfonyl-
ron
(Beacon)
urea
quizalofop Aryloxy-
(Assure) phenoxy-
propionic
Acid
sethoxydi Cyclohex-
m (Poast) anedione
thifensulfu Sulfonyl-
ron urea
(Pinnacle)
triallate Thiocarb-
(Fargo) amate
tribenuron Sulfonyl-
(Express) urea
trifluralin Dinitro-
(various) aniline
FUNGICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
benomyl Benzimida-
(Benlate) zole
chlorothaloni Aromatic
I (Bravo).
iprodione
(Rovral)
IV -V -(Birds,
mammals, fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -
(Fish) •
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) IV -
(Fish and aquatic
insects)
I V -V -(Birds
mammals and
aquatic insects)
II -(Fish)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals). 1 -II -
(Fish and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds,
mammals and
fish) III (Aquatic
invertebrates)
IV -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
Toxic to fish and other aquatic Use a buffer zone when applying near wetlands
organisms, duck cgg embryos. slightly or other water areas. Avoid direct applications to
toxic to mammals and birds. wildlife and nests.
No documented,field effects on
wildlife.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity m lab birds and
mammals.Toxic to early life stage of
fish.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Slightly toxic to aquatic
invertebrates.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Avoid spray drift. Use buffer zones
when applying near water areas. Should not be
used where groundwater contamination is likely.
Apply according to label directions. Avoid spray
drift.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Very low acute and subacute toxicity Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
to birds and mammals. Highly toxic to streams.
fish and aquatic insects.
No documented field effect on
wildlife.
High toxicity to aquatic invertebrate
and fish.
Toxicity class
V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish)
V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and effects on wildlife.
aquatic insects)
Documented effects on
wildlife
Toxic to fish and aquatic
insects.
No documented field
Dicarboximide V -(Birds and No documented field
mammals) I -(Fish and effects on wildlife
Avoid spray drift and contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Best measures to reduce the risk of
exposure
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds,
and streams. Use a buffer zone when
applying near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid •
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid .
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
mancozeb Ethylenebis
(Dithane, dithio-
Manzate, • carbamate
Penncozeb)
propiconazol Triazole
e (Tilt)
aquatic insects)
V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and effects on wildlife.
aquatic insects)
No documented field
IV -V -(Birds and No documented field
mammals) 1 -(Fish and effects on wildlife
aquatic insects)
thiabendazol Benzimidazole V -(Birds and No documented field
e (Mertect) mammals) I -(Fish and effects on wildlife
aquatic insects)
triadimefon Triazole
(Bayleton)
thiophanate
methyl
(Topsin-M)
V -(Birds and No documented field
mammals) I -(Fish and effects on wildlife
aquatic insects)
Benzimidazole IV -V -(Birds and
mamals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
No documented field
effects on wildlife
Toxicity class data is based on acute oral rate median lethal dose (LDSO) values
chemical. The five toxicity classes used are:
Class
I - Extremely toxic LDSO < 40 mg/kg
II - Highly toxic LDSO 41-200 mg/kg
III - Moderately toxic LDSO 201-1,000 mg/kg
IV - Slightly toxic • LDSO 1001-5,000 mg/kg
V - Relatively toxic LDSO > 5,000 mg/kg
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
for acute toxicity comparisons among
Wildlife and Pesticides: A practical guide to
reducing the risk
This information was obtained from NDSU Extension Service, North Dakota State University of Agriculture and Applied
Science, and U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating.
• Introduction
• Potential Hazards to Wildlife
• Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
• Assessing Pesticide Risk to Wildlife
• Reducing Pesticide Exposure Risk
• Pesticide Toxicity to Wildlife
• Summary
• Toxicity Tables
Pesticides are widely used in agriculture today. Producers use pesticides because they are effective and
generally reasonably priced. The benefits include reduced yield losses and timesavings to the producer,
and lower food and fiber costs for consumer.
There are some downside risks to pesticide use. Pesticide poisonings of people, livestock, and wildlife
have occurred when proper care was not exercised. Pesticide applicators must be very careful to avoid
these risks.
Pesticides, when used with good judgement and care in accordance with label instructions, benefit both
agriculture and the environment. Proper use ensures that food and wildlife production objectives can both
be realized.
Every pesticide applicator must accept responsibility to prevent or minimize the effects of pesticide
applications on nontarget organisms. There are several things you as an applicator can do to reduce the
risk of pesticide exposure to nontarget plants, animals and habitats.
Potential Hazards to Wildlife
In order to better protect wildlife from the risks of pesticide exposure it is necessary to understand what
effects pesticides may have on wildlife.
Several hundred different pesticides are used in agriculture today. Each one of these products has
different characteristics that can affect the risk posed to different types of wildlife. While a particular
pesticide may pose no harm to mammals, it may cause severe harm to aquatic or bird life. Knowing these
differences will greatly assist you in making the proper pesticide use decision.
There is much documentation showing that wildlife can be harmed by particular pesticides. The
documentation includes laboratory toxicity studies on various types of wildlife, field trials that must be
performed in order to register the pesticide, and reports of incidents of wildlife poisoning.
In Oregon in the 1970s, aldrin and mercury treated seed grain killed thousands of wild geese and other
wildlife. Thirty-six Canada geese were killed in 1988 as a result of an application of carbofuran
(Furadan) and disulfoton (Di-Syston) in Idaho. Phorate (Thimet) was involved in the deaths of hundreds
of waterfowl and several bald and golden eagles in South Dakota in 1989.
Many of the incidents involving wildlife kills result from misuse or illegal applications. One such
incident occurred in 1990 when an applicator in North Dakota illegally applied carbofuran (Furadan) to
-1-
i
J
carcasses for predator control. He was found guilty of killing several forms of wildlife, possibly including
a bald eagle.
Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
Pesticides' effects on wildlife may be lethal, sublethal, acute, chronic, habitat related, or there may be no
effect. In general the risk a pesticide poses to wildlife is related to the pesticide type, its toxicity, the
proximity of the application to wildlife habitat, the dose, application rate, number of applications, the
persistence of the pesticide in the environment, and its ability to concentrate in the wildlife food chain.
These factors interact with food habits and behavior of individual wildlife species to produce a response.
Pesticide Type
In general, insecticides are more toxic to fish and wildlife than herbicides or fungicides. Some herbicides
may harm wildlife by damaging the wildlife habitat.
Many of the insecticides currently used are either the organophosphate or carbamate type. These
insecticides work by interfering with the central nervous system of insects. The central nervous system of
fish or wildlife may be affected the same way. The toxicity of the various organophosphate and
carbamate insecticides ranges from slightly toxic products to products that are highly toxic. The more
toxic products are generally restricted use pesticides, which require applicators to be certified by their
state regulatory agency to purchase and apply products.
Synthetic pyrethroid insecticide use has been increasing. These synthesized insecticides are based on
naturally occurring pesticides, but have been modified to improve performance and persistence. Synthetic
pyrethroids also work by interfering with the central nervous system. Synthetic pyrethroids are low to
medium in toxicity to mammals and birds because they can quickly detoxify and excrete them. However,
fish and aquatic invertebrates can not quickly detoxify or excrete synthetic pyrethroids, so they are highly
susceptible to poisoning by these products.
Herbicides and fungicides are generally low to moderately toxic to wildlife. Particular herbicides can
have a large impact on the plant life making up the wildlife habitat.
Direct Effects
Wildlife can be exposed to pesticides directly by eating contaminated food or water, breathing pesticides,
or by skin absorption.
The type and magnitude of the effect depends on two factors, the pesticide toxicity and pesticide quantity
(dose). If exposure causes the animal's death, it is referred to as a lethal effect.
Young birds that eat or are fed pesticide treated insects are at great risk of suffering lethal pesticide
exposure effects. Sublethal insecticide effects occur when damage to the central nervous system causes
an animal to behave in a unusual manner. This behavior may affect the animal's ability to survive or
reproduce. Some typical sublethal responses in birds exposed to pesticides include the inability to sing
properly, establish a breeding territory, or attract a mate. Adults may be unable to care for themselves or
their young properly, resulting in death to the nestlings or increased chance of predation.
The lethal and sublethal effects of pesticides on wildlife and fish may occur from one exposure over a
short time period (acute) or they may result from exposures to small amounts over a longer time period
(chronic). Pesticides commonly used today do not persist as long in the environment as pesticides used
years ago. The tradeoff is that the acute toxicity of some of these modern pesticides is higher than the
older, more persistent chemicals.
-2-
Indirect Effects
Wildlife in general, and birds in particular, may also experience lethal or sublethal effects without being
directly exposed to a pesticide. This typically occurs when a pesticide application destroys or disrupts
food sources such as insects. Insects supply the protein necessary for growing birds. Studies indicate that
the growth of young birds can be stunted in areas where insecticides have been used heavily, resulting in
insect populations too low to meet young bird protein growth demands. Fish that feed on aquatic insects
and animals may also show stunted growth in areas of heavy insecticide use because their primary food
sources are killed. Inadequate diets also can affect fish reproduction and survival. Herbicides can reduce
the amount of cover and make the habitat less suitable for nesting.
Assessing Pesticide Risk to Wildlife
To properly assess the need for pesticides and the risk to wildlife, information must be gathered on the
condition of the crop, the pest situation, characteristics of candidate pesticides, present and expected
weather, and some knowledge about the kinds and behavior of wildlife living in the area. The importance
of good judgement, practical experience and common sense cannot be overemphasized. Prior to each and
every pesticide application, the overall situation should be evaluated so that the expected benefits of a
pesticide application are realized and potential hazards are minimized. Good information is necessary to
make good judgements.
Monitor Fields Regularly
Field scouting must be done. It is important to be aware of the status of the field, the crop stage, general
health, and yield potential of the crop, as well as the number and growth stage of the various pests that
are present. Careful scouting will reveal any wildlife that may also be present. Most pests and most
wildlife do not occur uniformly throughout a field. Drawing a map of the field showing the locations of
pest populations and wildlife along with recognizable landmarks can aid you in developing a pest control
plan that avoids possible effects on wildlife.
Identify Wildlife Signs, Seasons, and Habitats
One way to ensure that wildlife will not be impacted by a pesticide is to make the application when
wildlife are not present. Most wildlife signs can be easily determined while scouting the field. Virtually
all agricultural crops will support some type of wildlife. A wide assortment of wildlife will likely be
visible during most scouting trips.
Areas where wildlife are most likely to be located are field perimeters and other areas where fields may
come into contact with windbreaks, wetlands, livestock watering ponds, fence rows, abandoned
farmsteads, grasslands or odd areas.
Take note of areas where you actually see animals. Other evidence that wildlife are present and using the
area includes signs such as tracks, droppings, or foraging evidence.
If numerous wildlife signs are present, pesticide applicators can reduce potential impacts to wildlife by
marking such areas on a field map or leaving a flag in that area of a field. When spraying around
sensitive areas, leave a buffer zone of at least one-half the width of a sprayer boom. Another way to
minimize potential impacts to wildlife is to restrict spraying activities in these fields between the hours of
10 a.m. and 4 p.m. During this period, many wildlife will seek the protective cover of cropland,
particularly taller row crops, as they wait out the day prior to beginning evening and early morning
foraging activities.
-3-
Critical Reproductive Periods and Habitats
Most wildlife reproduction occurs from May 1 to late June and early July. This is perhaps the most
critical for many of our resident and migratory wildlife and fish. To complete this reproduction, animals
seek out suitable habitats.
These habitats can include wetlands, windbreaks and shelterbelts, fencerows, rangelands, and croplands.
Wildlife typically nest, birth, feed, and rear their young in areas that provide not only some type of
protective cover from the elements and potential predators, but also sources of food.
The transition zones between habitat types, where one plant community changes to another, are preferred.
These edges usually produce the greatest variety of food plants, insects and seeds. This allows wildlife
such as grouse, pheasants, and deer to feed without venturing too far from protective cover. For this
reason, most upland gamebird nests can be found in or near such edges.
Wetlands are important feeding and brood rearing habitats for waterfowl. Insecticides applied near
wetlands by ground sprayers or aircraft can enter the habitat through drift or runoff and contaminate these
areas. Depending on the insecticide type, food sources may be destroyed, causing sublethal effects or a
direct loss of young wildlife.
Similarly, shelterbelts and windbreaks are important habitats for many songbirds. Herbicide drift that
results in injury to trees and other vegetation can impair the ability of such habitats to provide safe,
secure nesting sites. Insecticide drift can kill nestlings and adult birds, as well as contaminate important
insect food sources.
Reducing Pesticide Exposure Risk
Regular field scouting and a pest control plan should be a part of every producer's operation. Pests are
best controlled by manipulating cropping conditions to put pests at a disadvantage to the crop or
beneficial organisms. Man and his crops are in competition with pests, and ALL available methods for
controlling pests should be considered, not just pesticides.
Eliminate Unnecessary Pesticide Applications Through IPM
Few applicators knowingly apply unnecessary pesticides because pesticides cost money. Every applicator
should ask, will this application pay for itself? Growers should not substitute pesticides for good
management. Pesticides are necessary but should only be part of a total pest control program, not the
entire program.
The best method of reducing risks to wildlife is to use integrated pest management (IPM) practices. IPM
incorporates cultural methods such as crop rotation, date of planting, variety choices, and seeding rates
with other methods of pest control to maintain pest populations at tolerable levels. Under IPM, pesticides
are used only when other methods are not successful and pest damage to crops might otherwise exceed
the cost of control.
Many pest management practices can help reduce the need for pesticides. Some additional control
methods include crop competition, crop rotation, tillage and cultivation, sanitation, planting resistant
varieties, planting weed and disease free seed, and using the natural controls present when possible.
A good example of non -pesticide control is a competitive crop. An early established, well developed crop
can do much to help control weeds. Plants emerging first have a competitive advantage over later
emerging plants. Anything done to get quick crop emergence that evenly covers the ground early will
have a big impact on weeds. Later emerging weeds are at a tremendous disadvantage and may not cause
yield and quality losses. The competitiveness of weeds and crops differs between species. Weeds such as
-4-
wild oats, wild mustard, and kochia are very competitive, while others, such as redroot pigweed and
foxtails are generally less competitive. Some crops ranked in order of decreasing competitiveness are rye,
barley, conventional height wheat, semidwarf wheat, and flax.
Choose the Pesticide Least Toxic to Non -target Organisms
Choose the least toxic pesticide that will control the pest. Often more than one pesticide is registered for
control of a particular pest in a particular crop. Take time to compare pesticides and make sure you
choose the one BEST suited for the job. Many times the best choice will be the least expensive treatment,
but that is not always the case. Sometimes the best choice would be a higher priced pesticide with fewer
risks for nontarget plants and animals.
Pesticide Toxicity to Wildlife
Pesticide applicators can plan a pesticide application that is less toxic to wildlife by examining pesticide
toxicity and potential for environmental injury to wildlife and wildlife habitats. This information can be
found in tables presented in the back of this publication.
When an applicator has identified the specific crop pest situation and checked local crop production
guides, a pesticide can be selected that minimizes risk to nontarget plants and animals and still achieves
the desired level of control.
If the selected pesticide still poses a high threat to wildlife, the applicator would at least be aware of the
risk and can take the steps to minimize any potential threats by following recommendations in this
publication.
Read the Pesticide Label
Certain pesticides pose a risk to wildlife or the environment. Some products are classified as
RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDES because of environmental hazards. Restricted use pesticides should
only be applied by a certified applicator who has been properly trained. •
Pesticides that pose environmental risks are labeled to warn the applicator what the risks could be and
what steps should be taken to protect people, animals and the environment. These warnings can be found
in the "Precautionary Statements" section of the label. The precautionary section is divided into
subsections dealing with "Hazards to Humans or Domestic Animals," Environmental Hazard" and
"Physical or Chemical Hazard." The risks to wildlife and the environment may be found in the
"Environmental Hazard" section. It is a violation of federal law to apply pesticides in any way that is not
consistent with label instructions.
Hazards to Wildlife
If a particular pesticide is especially hazardous to wildlife, it will be stated on the label. For example:
• This product is highly toxic to bees.
• This product is toxic to fish.
• This product is toxic to birds and other wildlife.
The label may indicate that the product causes undesirable effects in the environment. In this case, the
precautionary statement may tell what to avoid doing. Labeling may indicate limitations imposed to
protect wildlife, including endangered species. These limitations may include reduced rates, restrictions
on types of application, or a ban on the pesticide's use within the species range. The label also may
indicate additional sources of information on proper application methods to reduce hazards.
-5-
These statements explain special hazards that the pesticides may pose. They should help when choosing
the safest product for a particular job and serve as a reminder to take extra precautions.
General Environmental Statements
General environmental statements appear on nearly every pesticide label as reminders of common sense
actions needed to avoid contaminating the environment. The absence of any or all of these statements
DOES NOT change the requirement to take adequate precautions.
Sometimes the statements will follow a "specific toxicity statement" and provide practical steps to avoid
harm to wildlife.
Examples of general environmental statements include:
• Do not apply when runoff is likely to occur.
• Do not apply when weather conditions favor drift from treated areas.
• Do not contaminate water when cleaning equipment or disposing of wastes.
• Keep out of any body of water.
• Do not allow drift on desirable plants or trees.
• Do not apply when bees are likely to be in the area.
• Do not apply where the water table is close to the surface.
Note: It is the responsibility of every pesticide applicator to read and follow the label directions.
Use the Lowest Effective Rate
Many times the label will allow a range of rates to control a particular pest. Differences in pest size or
stage, pest populations and environmental conditions can affect the amount of pesticide needed. Often
pesticide rates at the lower end of the rate range can be used when pests are in sensitive growth stages, at
lower populations and the weather and growing conditions are favorable.
Use Buffer Zones
An area between the area sprayed and a sensitive area is called a buffer zone. This area can be a grass
strip or may even be part of the crop that is not treated. This buffer area will help trap pesticides and
prevent them from entering sensitive areas by spray drift or by runoff.
Spot Spraying
Many times a pest is located only in a portion of the field. Spraying only the area where the pest is found,
leaving the rest of the field untreated, reduces potential risks and saves time and money.
Begin Spraying In the Middle of the Field -
Most wildlife will be present near the edges of a field. Spraying the field by starting in the middle of the
field will allow wildlife time to escape or move out of the field area.
Trap Areas
Some farmers are experimenting with the use of trap areas. Farmers will seed these areas with an early
maturing crop variety ahead of normal planting dates. These areas may attract pests and if pest
populations develop in the trap area, a pesticide application can be made. Controlling pests in this manner
can reduce chances that pesticides will be required on the rest of the field.
-6-
Check Weather Conditions
A good applicator always checks the weather conditions before spraying. Weather conditions can greatly
affect the pesticide exposure through spray drift or runoff. Don't apply pesticides just before rains
because pesticides could run off the treated field with excess rainwater and potentially contaminate
sensitive areas. Avoid spraying when weather conditions could cause spray drift into sensitive areas.
Avoid Spray Drift
Spray drift can cause damage to wildlife or wildlife habitat. The following measures are available to
greatly reduce drift.
Avoid spraying on windy days
Check the wind speed and direction. If conditions could cause spray drift into sensitive areas, don't
spray. If an application must be made you must take every precaution you can to prevent drift from
entering sensitive areas.
Another weather condition to avoid is a temperature inversion. Temperature inversions occur when
cooler air is near the ground and is beneath warmer air. Very small spray droplets will remain
suspended in the air and can move some distance.
Use a nonvolatile formulation
Some pesticides are volatile and can form vapors, usually on warmer (greater than 70 F) days, which
can drift into susceptible areas. If there is an alternative pesticide or formulation that is not volatile
and will control the pest, it should be used instead.
Increase Droplet Size
Spray nozzles produce spray droplets of many different sizes. Larger droplets are heavier and drift
less. Practices that increase droplet size will reduce drift, such as increasing nozzle size or water
volume, reducing spray pressure or using a drift retardant.
Use Larger Nozzle
Larger nozzles allow you to apply the same volume of spray with less spray pressure. Spray droplets
will be larger than those produced by a smaller nozzle with higher pressure.
Increase Water Volume
Increasing the water volume will decrease drift because water droplets will be larger and will tend to
drift less.
Use the Lowest Practical Pressure
Lower spray pressure will result in larger spray droplets that drift less than smaller droplets. If spray
pressure is reduced too much the spray pattern that results will not be uniform. Newer nozzles such as
the "LP" or "XR" type are designed to produce uniform spray patterns with pressures of 15 to 20
pounds per square inch.
Use a Drift Retardant
A drift retardant will help reduce spray drift by increasing the size of spray droplets. Larger droplets
tend to drift less than small droplets.
-7-
Reduce Spray Boom Height
Set spray booms at the lowest height that will give uniform coverage. The closer the boom is to the
spray target the less chance there is for drift.
Use a Shielded Sprayer
Using a shielded sprayer will help reduce spray drift by protecting the spray from wind. Shielded
sprayers allow a wider selection of spraying times during the day and more total spraying time per
day. These time savers can be used to more precisely target crop areas and avoid sensitive areas.
More information on spray drift can be found at your state's Cooperative Extension Service county
office.
Summary
The responsibility to prevent or minimize the effects of pesticide applications on nontarget organisms
rests with every pesticide applicator. Information concerning the proper use and application of a pesticide
can be found on the product label.
Reducing the risk of pesticide exposure to nontarget organisms requires applicators to incorporate crop
scouting and IPM techniques with a knowledge of wildlife life cycles and habitats in developing a farm
pesticide application plan. Development of such a plan will insure not only the most cost effective means
for controlling crop pest situations, but also result in the greatest reduction of risk of pesticide exposure
to wildlife.
Resource Material
Apply Pesticides Correctly: A Guide for Commercial Applicators, U.S. Department of Agriculture
and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Commercial and Private Applicator Core Manual: Initial Certification, September 1989,
Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan State University.
Dexter, A. Herbicide Spray Drift. 1986. NDSU Extension Service. A-657 revised.
Extoxnet Cooperative Extension Offices, Cornell, U of Calif., Michigan State, Oregon State Univ.
Facemire, F. Charles, 1991. Impact of agricultural chemicals on wetland habitats and associated
biota with special reference to migratory birds. B.780, SDSU, Brookings, SD. 65 pp.
Herbicide Handbook of the Weed Science Society of America. Sixth Ed., 1989, Weed Science Society
of America, Champagne, Illinois, 61820.
McBride, D.K., D.E. Peterson, H.A. Lamey, 1988, Persistence and Mobility of Pesticides in Soil and
Water, NDSU Extension Service. E-49, NDSU Fargo, ND 58105
Pesticide Applicator Training Manual: Core Manual, 2nd Ed., Chemicals -Pesticides Program,
Cornell University, 1990. D. Rutz, Director, R. Gardner, W. Smith.
-8-
Wildlife and Pesticides: A practical guide to reducing the risk (continued)
Toxicity Tables
These tables provide toxicity comparisons for commonly used pesticides. These comparisons are intended to give applicators the information needed to reduce the
risk of an application to wildlife.
INSECTICIDES
Pesticide (Trade
name) Family
acephate Organo-
(Orthene) phosphate
Aldicarb (Temik) Carbamate
azinphos methyl Organo-
(Guthion) phosphate
Bacillus Microbial
Thuringiensis
(various)
carbaryl (Sevin) Carbamate
carbofuran Carbamate
(Furdan)
Toxicity class
I11 -(Birds and mammals) I-
(Fish/aquatic insects)
I -Birds, fish, mammals and
aquatic insects)
Documented effects on wildlife
Moderate to slight acute oral toxicity
to birds and mammals Reduction in
ChE activity.
Bird and mammal mortality reported
after ingestion of exposed granules.
One of the most toxic carbamate
pesticides. Extremely toxicto aquatic
organisms.
I -(Mammals) 1I -IV (Birds) I1 - Extremely toxic to mammals in
(Fish/aqurtic insects) formulations containing a high
percentage of active ingredient.
Highly toxic to fish and aquatic
insects.
Best measures to reduce the risk of exposure
Increase water volumes to reduce drift. Avoid use areas of high
bird numbers. Use lowest recommended effective rates. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, ponds, streams and rivers.
Proper incorporation of granules. Consider weather and terrain to
avoid runoff potentials into water areas.
Scout fields to determine the presence of wildlife. Avoid or delay
direct application when wildlife is present. Exercise caution to
reduce the risk of direct, drift, or runoff applications to water or
wetland areas. Avoid contaminating ponds,lakes, and streams.
V -(Birds and mammals) No documented effects on wildlife. Apply according to label directions.
III -IV -(Birds 111 -(Mammals) I- Moderate acute/chronic toxicity to
(Aquatic insects) birds, fish, and mammals. Low
persistence. Toxic to aquatic insects.
1 -(All)
Highly toxic to all forms of wildlife
even when applied at lowest
recommended effective rate.
-9-
Avoid direct applications to wetlands and other waters. Reduce
potentials for drift and runoff by using buffer zones.
Avoid applying this chemical when wildlife is present. Use buffer
zones when applying near wetlands, other waters, and wooded
areas. Use an alternate pestiicide. (Granular carbofuran has been
voluntarily cancelled and will be phased out by 1994. Flowable is
still registered.)
chlorpyrifos
(Lorsban)
Organo-
phosphate
diazinon (various) Organo-
dimethoate
(Cygon)
I -II -(Birds) 11-III-(Mammis) I- Highly toxic to mammals and birds
(Fish and aquatic insects) through oral Extremely toxic to fish
and aquatic insects.
III -(Mammals) I -(Birds, fish
phosphate and aquatic insects)
Organo-
phosphate
disulfoton (Di- Organo-
Syston) phosphate
endosulfan
(Thiodan) •
I -(Birds, fish, and aquatic
insects) III -(Mammals)
I -(All)
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and streams. Do not
apply when wildlife are present.
Extremely toxic to birds and Applications should be made only after a careful evaluation.
moderately toxic to mammals. Toxic Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
to bees, fish, and other aquatic
organisms.
Moderate acute oral toxicity to
mammals. Extremely toxic to birds,
fish, and other aquatic organisms.
Pheasants are particularly sensitive
to this pesticide.
Extremely toxic to birds, mammals,
fish, bee and aquatic organisms.
Secondary poisoning in birds eating
treated insects has been reported.
Chlorinated I -(Fish and aquatic insects) 11- Fish kills associated with
Hydrocarbon IV (Birds) I -II (Mammals) contaminated agricultural runoff.
Concentrates of <1.3 ppm were
sufficient to cause mortality. Highly
toxic to aquatic organisms/insects.
esfenvalerate Pyrethroid I (Fish) IV -(Bird and
(Asana) mammals)
parathion (methy Organo-
ethyl) (Penncap- phosphate
M various)
fenvalerate
(Pydrin)
1 -(All)
Pyrethroid I -(Fish) IV-V(Bird and
mammals)
Highly toxic to fish, aquatic insects.
No reported toxicity in
birds/mammals.
Ethyl and methyl parathion are
extremely toxic to birds, mammals
through both acute oral and dermal
exposure at recommended
application rates. These chemicals
are highly toxic to bees fish and
other aquatic organisms.
See Esfenvalerate
-10-
Avoid application (direct, drift or runoff) on water areas/wetlands.
Use buffer zones near water and shelterbelts.
Proper field scouting to include a careful evaluation of potential
wildlife exposure will reduce the risk. Do not apply when wildlife
is present.
Caution should be taken to avoid risks associated with agricultural
runoff. The use of buffer zone will reduce risk associated with use
of this pesticide.
Measures to reduce the risks to wildlife. Avoid applications
(direct, drift, runoff in water bodies/ wetlands. Use lowest
recommended effective rates and buffer zones near water.
Prior to applying parathion a thorough scouting of the field should
be conducted. Field applications of parathion should be made
prior to 10 a.m. or after 4 p.m. to minimize drift and leave buffer
zone near critical wildlife habitats such as windbreaks and
wetlands. Do not apply when wildlife are present.
See esfenvalerate.
fonofos
(Dyfonate)
malathion
(Cythion)
Organo-
phosphate
Organo-
phosphate
methidathion Organo-
(Supracide OP) phosphate
phorate (Thimet) Organo-
phosphate
terbufos
(Counter)
Organo-
phosphate
permethin Synthetic
(Ambush Pounce) pyrethroid
I(AII)
III -(Birds and mammals) I -
(Fish and aquatic insects)
II(All)
1(Al1)
Highly toxic to fish, mammals and
birds due to chemical action, high
field use and relatively long
persistence. Used as a granular
treatment.
Complete incorporation of the product into the soil will minimize
wildlife exposure risks. Consider weather and terrain to avoid
runoff contamination.
No documented effects on wildlife Avoid application (direct, drift or runoff) on water areas/wetlands.
(birds/ mammals) when used at Use near buffer zones near water.
recommended application rates.
Toxic to bees, fish and other aquatic
organism.
High acute oral toxicity to
birds/mammals, bees and fish.
Extremely high oral and dermal
toxicity has been documented in
birds and mammals after exposure to
pesticide. Wildlife deaths reported
are related to ingestion of
improperly incorporated granules, in
areas subject to flooding and run off.
Uptake of chemical in plants may
also cause wildlife exposure.
I(A11) Extremely toxic to lab mammals.
Potential for greatest impact due to
ingestion of granules.
I -(Fish and aquatic insects) V- Extremely toxic to aquatic
(Birds and mammals) organisms. No documented field
effects on birds or mammals.
Careful scouting of field to identify the presence of wildlife and
the subsequent avoidance of such area and critical wildlife habitats
during application will minimize wildlife exposure risks.
In areas subject to flooding and runoff and where wildlife are
present in large concentrations (migrations) the use of this
pesticide should be carefully evaluated. The pesticide must be
properly incorporated.
Spillage, failure to cover granules, heavy rains or high winds
could expose granules increasing the risk. If such conditions exist
do not apply if wildlife is present. In areas subject to flooding and
runoff and where wildlife are present in large concentrations
(migrations) the use of this pesticide should be carefully
evaluated. The pesticide must be properly incorporated. Risk can
be reduced if applied as an in -furrow or modified in -furrow
application.
Prevent direct, applications or drift and runoff into wetlands and
other water. Use a buffer zone if applied near water areas.
-11-
HERBICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name)
2,4-D
Family
Phenoxy
2,4-D Amine
2,4-D Ester (see 2,4,-D)
acifluorfen Biphenol ether
(Blazer)
alachlor Acetanilide
(various)
atrazine Triazine
(various)
bentazon Benzothia-
(various) diazoles
bromoxynil Benzonitrile
(Buctril)
clopyralid Pyridine
(Stinger)
Toxicity class
III -IV -(Birds and
mammals) II -(Fish and
other aquatic
organisms)
III -V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I-II(Fish
and aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) IV -(Fish)
Documented effects on wildlife
Moderately toxic to birds and mammals. Highly
toxic to insects, fish. A reduction of birds broad-
leaved plants from applications can result in a
reduction in the nest numbers of waterfowl and
other upland nesting birds. Use of a non toxic oil
vehicle during application increases toxicity of
the chemical to egg embryos. Spray drift can
harm wooded areas.
No documented impacts on birds or mammals.
Toxic to aquatic organisms. May damage
susceptible foliage (cover).
No documented impacts on birds and mammals.
Highly toxic to aquatic insects and fish.
Slightly toxic to birds at high concentrations.
Indirect effects on aquatic fauna may result as the
chemical impacts aquatic plant species. Toxic to
fish and aquatic invertebrates at high
concentrations.
III -IV -(Birds, mammals No documented impacts on birds and mammals.
and fish) Moderately toxic to Rainbow trout.
I -(Fish and aquatic
insects) II -IV -
(Mammals and birds)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) 1I -(Fish)
Extremely toxic to aquatic invertebrates No
documented impacts on birds and mammals.
No documented impacts on wildlife.
-12-
Best measures to reduce the risk of exposure
In areas where waterfowl and other upland nest apply with a
water based spray mixture. Spot spray where possible to reduce
impacts on potential nest cover. Avoid spray drift. Apply amine
formulation where drift is a concern. Use a buffer zone when
applied in wooded areas, or near water.
Avoid spray drift. Use buffer zones near surface water. Avoid
contaminating ponds, lakes, wetlands, and streams.
Avoid spray drift and runoff contamination of wetlands and
other water areas by using buffer zones. Avoid contaminating
ponds, lakes, wetlands, and streams.
To minimize the impacts of agricultural runoff carrying this
chemical into wetlands and other waters employ buffer zones.
Use at lowest effective rate.Use with caution in areas where
groundwater contamination is likely. Avoid contaminating
ponds, lakes, wetlands, and streams.
Use buffer zones to reduce potential impacts to aquatic habitats.
Do not apply when conditions favor drift. Avoid contaminating
ponds, lakes, wetlands, and streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes, wetlands,
and streams.
Use buffer zones if applying near water areas. Avoid
contaminating ponds, lakes, wetlands, and streams.
cyanazine Triazine
(Bladex)
III -IV -(Birds and
mammals)
cycloate (Ro- Thio- carbamate V -(Birds) IV-
Neet) (Mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic organisms)
desmedopham Carbamate
(Betanex)
dicamba
(Banvel)
diclofop
(Hoelon)
Benzoic Acid
Aryloxy-
phenoxy-
propionic Acid
difenzoquat Bipyridilium
(Avenge)
EPTC
(Eptam) '
IV -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects).
IV -(Birds mammals,
fish, and aquatic
insects)
V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I -(Fish, and
aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) II -(Fish) I -
(Aquatic insects)
Thio- carbamate IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
ethalfluralin Dinitro- aniline
(Sonalan)
fenoxaprop Aryloxy-
(Whip) phenoxy-
(Option) propionic Acid
fluazifop Aryloxy-
(Fusilade) phenoxy-
propionic Acid
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
Slightly toxic to aquatic invertebrates. No
documented impacts in birds or mammals.
No documented field effects in wildlife. Low
acute oral and dermal toxicity in laboratory
mammals. Toxic to fish.
No documented field effects in wildlife. Low
toxicity to laboratory animals. Toxic to fish.
Use buffer zones if applying near wetland or other waters. Use
caution in areas where groundwater contamination is likely.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid contaminating
wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid contaminating
wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
No documented field effects on wildlife. Slightly Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes,
toxic to aquatic invertebrates. and streams.
No documented field effects on wildlife.
No documented field effects on wildlife.
No documented field effects on wildlife. Low
toxicity in lab birds and mammals.
No documented field effects on wildlife. Low
toxicity in lab birds and mammals.
No documented field effects on wildlife. Low
toxicity in lab birds and mammals.
No documented field effects on wildlife. Low
toxicity in lab birds and mammals.
-13-
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes,
and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
glyphosate Amino Acid
(Roundup)
(Rodeo)
imaza-
methabenz
(Assert)
Amino Acid
Imidazoline
MCPA-amine Phenoxy-
MCPA-ester carboxylic Acid
metsulfuron
(Ally)
Sulfonyl Urea
Nicosulfuron Sulfonyl-
paraquat Bipyridilium
(Cyclone)
(Gramoxone-
Extra)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
III -IV Fish and aquatic
insects.
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) II -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
III -IV (Birds and
mammals) 1-III(Fish
and aquatic insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) 11-I1I (Fish
and aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) IV -(Fish and
aquatic invertabrates)
I -(Fish and aquatic
organisms) 1I -I11 -
(waterfowl embroyos,
mammals/bird)
pendimethalin Dinitro- anilien IV -(Birds and
(Prowl) mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
picloram
(Tordon)
Pyridine "IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish)
primisulfuron Sulfonyl- urea
(Beacon)
No documented field effects on wildlife. Low Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams. Avoid
spray drift.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid spray drift.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
toxicity in lab birds and mammals.
Rodeo is slightly toxic to aquatic organisms
unlike its counterpart Round -up.
No documented field effects on wildlife. Low
toxicity in lab birds and mammals.
No documented field effects on wildlife. Low
toxicity in lab birds and mammals.
No documented field effects on wildlife. Low
toxicity in lab birds and mammals.
No documented field effects on wildlife.
Toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms, duck
egg embryos. slightly toxic to mammals and
birds.
No documented field effects on wildlife.
No documented field effects on wildlife. Low
toxicity in lab birds and mammals.Toxic to early
life stage of fish.
IV -V -(Birds, mammals, No documented field effects on wildlife.
fish and aquatic insects)
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams. Use
drift precautions. Apply the amine formulation in areas where
drift is a concern.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams. Avoid
spray drift.
Apply according to label directions. Avoid spray drift.
Use a buffer zone when applying near wetlands or other water
areas. Avoid direct applications to wildlife and nests.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams. Avoid
spray drift. Use buffer zones when applying near water areas.
Should not be used where groundwater contamination is likely.
Apply according to label directions. Avoid spray drift.
-14-
quizalofop
(Assure)
Aryloxy-
phenoxy-
propionic Acid
sethoxydim Cyclohex-
(Poast) . anedione
thifensulfuron Sulfonyl- urea
(Pinnacle)
trial l ate
(Fargo)
tribenuron
(Express)
trifluralin
(various)
Thiocarb- amate
Sulfonyl- urea
Dinitro- aniline
FUNGICIDES
Pesticide (Trade
name)
benomyl
(Benlate)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) 1 -(Fish)
No documented field effects on wildlife. Low Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
toxicity in lab birds and mammals.
IV -V (Birds and No documented field effects on wildlife. Low
mammals) IV -(Fish and toxicity in lab birds and mammals.
aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds mammals
and aquatic insects) II -
(Fish)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) I -II -(Fish
and aquatic insects)
IV -V (Birds, mammals
and fish) III (Aquatic
invertebrates)
IV -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
Family
Benzimida- zole
chlorothalonil Aromatic
(Bravo)
iprodione
(Rovral)
mancozeb
No documented field effects on wildlife. Slightly
toxic to aquatic invertebrates.
Very low acute and subacute toxicity to birds and
mammals. Highly toxic to fish and aquatic
insects.
No documented field effect on wildlife.
High toxicity to aquatic invertebrate and fish.
Toxicity class
V -(Birds and mammals) I -
(Fish)
V -(Birds and mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic insects)
Documented effects on wildlife
Toxic to fish and aquatic insects.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
Dicarboximide V -(Birds and mammals) I -(Fish No documented field effects on
and aquatic insects) wildlife
Ethylenebis dithio- V -(Birds and mammals) I -(Fish No documented field effects on
-15-
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes,
and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid spray drift and contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and streams.
Best measures to reduce the risk of exposure
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and streams. Use
a buffer zone when applying near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid contaminating
wetlands, lakes, ponds, and streams. Use a buffer zone when
applying near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid contaminating
wetlands, lakes, ponds, and streams. Use a buffer zone when
applying near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid contaminating
(Dithane,
Manzate,
Penncozeb)
propiconazole
(Tilt)
thiabendazole
(Mertect)
triadimefon
(Bayleton)
thiophanate
methyl (Topsin-
M)
carbamate
Triazole
Benzimidazole
Triazole
Benzimidazole
Toxicity class data is based on acute
Class
I - Extremely toxic
II - Highly toxic
Ill - Moderately toxic
IV - Slightly toxic
V - Relatively toxic
and aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds and mammals) I -
(Fish and aquatic insects)
V -(Birds and mammals) 1 -(Fish
and aquatic insects)
V -(Birds and mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds and mamals) I -
(Fish and aquatic insects)
wildlife. wetlands, lakes, ponds, and streams. Use a buffer zone when
applying near water.
No documented field effects on
wildlife
No documented field effects on
wildlife
No documented field effects on
wildlife
No documented field effects on
wildlife
Apply according to label instruction.
wetlands, lakes, ponds, and streams.
applying near water.
Apply according to label instruction.
wetlands, lakes, ponds, and streams.
applying near water.
Apply according to label instruction.
wetlands, lakes, ponds, and streams.
applying near water.
Apply according to label instruction.
wetlands, lakes, ponds, and streams.
applying near water.
Avoid contaminating
Use a buffer zone when
Avoid contaminating
Use a buffer zone when
Avoid contaminating
Use a buffer zone when
Avoid contaminating
Use a buffer zone when
oral rate median lethal dose (LDSO) values for acute toxicity comparisons among chemical. The five toxicity classes used are:
LDSO < 40 mg/kg
LDSO 41-200 mg/kg
LDSO 201-1,000 mg/kg
LDSO 1001-5,000 mg/kg
LDSO > 5,000 mg/kg
-16-
Subj: Wildlife and sticides Source
Date: Tuesday, August 21, 2001 6:50:19 AM.
From: swshultz@shultzsteel.com
To: cityofrh@aol.com
NDSU Extension Service, North Dakota State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science, and U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating
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From: Steve Shultz <swshultz@shultzsteel.com>
To: "Craig Nealis (E-mail)" <cityofrh@aol.com>
Subject: Wildlife and Pesticides Source .
Date: Tue, 21 Aug 2001 06:54:54 -0700
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8/21/.01
America Online : Cityofrh Page 1
City tRotr.�nS.���
INCORPORATED JANUARY 24, 1957
NO. 2 PORTUGUESE BEND ROAD
ROLLING HILLS, CALIF. 90274
(310) 377-1521
FAX: (310) 377-7288
E-mail: cityofrh@aol.com
Agenda Item No.: 5.1
Mtg. Date: 07/16/01
TO: HONORABLE CHAIR AND MEMBERS OF THE WILDLIFE
PRESERVATION COMMITTEE
FROM: CRAIG NEALIS, CITY MANAGER
SUBJECT: CONSIDERATION OF INFORMATION RELATIVE TO WILDLIFE
AND PESTICIDES
DATE: JULY 16, 2001
Councilmember Godfrey Pernell has suggested that information be made available at
City Hall relating to wildlife and pesticides. Attached to this staff report is information
that was gathered by Wildlife Preservation Committee Member Steve Shultz.
RECOMMENDATION
It is recommended that members of the Wildlife Preservation consider directing staff to
make this information available at City Hall.
CRN:mlk
07/16/01 wpcpesticide.s to
Do IA -
Printed on Recycled Paper.
Wildlife and Pesticides: A practical guide to
reducing the risk
• Introduction
• Potential Hazards to Wildlife
• Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
• Assessing Pesticide Risk to Wildlife
• Reducing Pesticide Exposure Risk
• Pesticide Toxicity to Wildlife
• Summary
• Toxicity Tables
Pesticides are widely used in agriculture today. Producers use pesticides because they are effective and generally reasonably
priced. The benefits include reduced yield losses and timesavings to the producer, and lower food and fiber costs for consumer.
There are some downside risks to pesticide use. Pesticide poisonings of people, livestock, and wildlife have occurred when
proper care was not exercised. Pesticide applicators must be very careful to avoid these risks.
Pesticides, when used with good judgement and care in accordance with label instructions, benefit both agriculture and the
environment. Proper use ensures that food and wildlife production objectives can both be realized.
Every pesticide applicator must accept responsibility to prevent or minimize the effects of pesticide applications on nontarget
organisms. There are several things you as an applicator can do to reduce the risk of pesticide exposure to nontarget plants,
animals and habitats.
Potential Hazards to Wildlife
In order to better protect wildlife from the risks of pesticide exposure it is necessary to understand what effects pesticides may
have on wildlife.
Several hundred different pesticides are used in agriculture today. Each one of these products has different characteristics that
can affect the risk posed to different types of wildlife. While a particular pesticide may pose no harm to mammals, it may cause
severe harm to aquatic or bird life. Knowing these differences will greatly assist you in making the proper pesticide use
decision.
There is much documentation showing that wildlife can be harmed by particular pesticides. The documentation includes
laboratory toxicity studies on various types of wildlife, field trials that must be performed in order to register the pesticide, and
reports of incidents of wildlife poisoning.
In Oregon in the 1970s, aldrin and mercury treated seed grain killed thousands of wild geese and other wildlife. Thirty-six
Canada geese were killed in 1988 as a result of an application of carbofuran (Furadan) and disulfoton (Di-Syston) in Idaho.
Phorate (Thimet) was involved in the deaths of hundreds of waterfowl and several bald and golden eagles in South Dakota in
1989.
Many of the incidents involving wildlife kills result from misuse or illegal applications. One such incident occurred in 1990
when an applicator in North Dakota illegally applied carbofuran (Furadan) to carcasses for predator control. He was found
guilty of killing several forms of wildlife, possibly including a bald eagle.
Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
Pesticides' effects on wildlife may be lethal, sublethal, acute, chronic, habitat related, or there may be no effect. In general the
risk a pesticide poses to wildlife is related to the pesticide type, its toxicity, the proximity of the application to wildlife habitat,
the dose, application rate, number of applications, the persistence of the pesticide in the environment, and its ability to
concentrate in the wildlife food chain. These factors interact with food habits and behavior of individual wildlife species to
produce a response.
Pesticide Type
In general, insecticides are more toxic to fish and wildlife than herbicides or fungicides. Some herbicides may harm wildlife by
damaging the wildlife habitat.
Many of the insecticides currently used are either the organophosphate or carbamate type. These insecticides work by
interfering with the central nervous system of insects. The central nervous system of fish or wildlife may be affected the same
way. The toxicity of the various organophosphate and carbamate insecticides ranges from slightly toxic products to products
that are highly toxic. The more toxic products are generally restricted use pesticides, which require applicators to be certified
by their state regulatory agency to purchase and apply products.
Synthetic pyrethroid insecticide use has been increasing. These synthesized insecticides are based on naturally occurring
pesticides, but have been modified to improve performance and persistence. Synthetic pyrethroids also work by interfering
with the central nervous system. Synthetic pyrethroids are low to medium in toxicity to mammals and birds because they can
quickly detoxify and excrete them. However, fish and aquatic invertebrates can not quickly detoxify or excrete synthetic
pyrethroids, so they are highly susceptible to poisoning by these products.
Herbicides and fungicides are generally low to moderately toxic to wildlife. Particular herbicides can have a large impact on
the plant life making up the wildlife habitat.
Direct Effects
Wildlife can be exposed to pesticides directly by eating contaminated food or water, breathing pesticides, or by skin
absorption.
The type and magnitude of the effect depends on two factors, the,pesticide toxicity and pesticide quantity (dose). If exposure
causes the animal's death, it is referred to as a lethal effect.
Young birds that eat or are fed pesticide treated insects are at great risk of suffering lethal pesticide exposure effects. Sublethal
insecticide effects occur when damage to the central nervous system causes an animal to behave in a unusual manner. This
behavior may affect the animal's ability to survive or reproduce. Some typical sublethal responses in birds exposed to
pesticides include the inability to sing properly, establish a breeding territory, or attract a mate. Adults may be unable to care
for themselves or their young properly, resulting in death to the nestlings or increased chance of predation.
The lethal and sublethal effects of pesticides on wildlife and fish may occur from one exposure over a short time period (acute)
or they may result from exposures to small amounts over a longer time period (chronic). Pesticides commonly used today do
not persist as long in the environment as pesticides used years ago. The tradeoff is that the acute toxicity of some of these
modern pesticides is higher than the older, more persistent chemicals.
Indirect Effects
Wildlife in general, and birds in particular, may also experience lethal or sublethal effects without being directly exposed to a
pesticide. This typically occurs when a pesticide application destroys or disrupts food sources such as insects. Insects supply
the protein necessary for growing birds. Studies indicate that the growth of young birds can be stunted in areas where
insecticides have been used heavily, resulting in insect populations too low to meet young bird protein growth demands. Fish
that feed on aquatic insects and animals may also show stunted growth in areas of heavy insecticide use because their primary
food sources are killed. Inadequate diets also can affect fish reproduction and survival. Herbicides can reduce the amount of
cover and make the habitat less suitable for nesting.
Assessing Pesticide Risk to Wildlife
To properly assess the need for pesticides and the risk to wildlife, information must be gathered on the condition of the crop,
the pest situation, characteristics of candidate pesticides, present and expected weather, and some knowledge about the kinds
and behavior of wildlife living in the area. The importance of good judgement, practical experience and common sense cannot
be overemphasized. Prior to each and every pesticide application, the overall situation should be evaluated so that the expected
benefits of a pesticide application are realized and potential hazards are minimized. Good information is necessary to make
good judgements.
Monitor Fields Regularly
Field scouting must be done. It is important to be aware of the status of the field, the crop stage, general health, and yield
potential of the crop, as well as the number and growth stage of the various pests that are present. Careful scouting will reveal
any wildlife that may also be present. Most pests and most wildlife do not occur uniformly throughout a field. Drawing a map
of the field showing the locations of pest populations and wildlife along with recognizable landmarks can aid you in
developing a pest control plan that avoids possible effects on wildlife.
Identify Wildlife Signs, Seasons, and Habitats
One way to ensure that wildlife will not be impacted by a pesticide is to make the application when wildlife are not present.
Most wildlife signs can be easily determined while scouting the field. Virtually all agricultural crops will support some type of
wildlife. A wide assortment of wildlife will likely be visible during most scouting trips.
Areas where wildlife are most likely to be located are field perimeters and other areas where fields may come into contact with
windbreaks, wetlands, livestock watering ponds, fence rows, abandoned farmsteads, grasslands or odd areas.
Take note of areas where you actually see animals. Other evidence that wildlife are present and using the area includes signs
such as tracks, droppings, or foraging evidence.
If numerous wildlife signs are present, pesticide applicators can reduce potential impacts to wildlife by marking such areas on a
field map or leaving a flag in that area of a field. When spraying around sensitive areas, leave a buffer zone of at least one-half
the width of a sprayer boom. Another way to minimize potential impacts to wildlife is to restrict spraying activities in these
fields between the hours of 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. During this period, many wildlife will seek the protective cover of cropland,
particularly taller row crops, as they wait out the day prior to beginning evening and early morning foraging activities.
Critical Reproductive Periods and Habitats
Most wildlife reproduction occurs from May 1 to late June and early July. This is perhaps the most critical for many of our
resident and migratory wildlife and fish. To complete this reproduction, animals seek out suitable habitats.
These habitats can include wetlands, windbreaks and shelterbelts, fencerows, rangelands, and croplands. Wildlife typically
nest, birth, feed, and rear their young in areas that provide not only some type of protective cover from the elements and
potential predators, but also sources of food.
The transition zones between habitat types, where one plant community changes to another, are preferred. These edges usually
produce the greatest variety of food plants, insects and seeds. This allows wildlife such as grouse, pheasants, and deer to feed
without venturing too far from protective cover. For this reason, most upland gamebird nests can be found in or near such
edges.
Wetlands are important feeding and brood rearing habitats for waterfowl. Insecticides applied near wetlands by ground
sprayers or aircraft can enter the habitat through drift or runoff and contaminate these areas. Depending on the insecticide type,
food sources may be destroyed, causing sublethal effects or a direct loss of young wildlife.
Similarly, shelterbelts and windbreaks are important habitats for many songbirds. Herbicide drift that results in injury to trees
and other vegetation can impair the ability of such habitats to provide safe, secure nesting sites. Insecticide drift can kill
nestlings and adult birds, as well as contaminate important insect food sources.
Reducing Pesticide Exposure Risk
Regular field scouting and a pest control plan should be a part of every producer's operation. Pests are best controlled by
manipulating cropping conditions to put pests at a disadvantage to the crop or beneficial organisms. Man and his crops are in
competition with pests, and ALL available methods for controlling pests should be considered, not just pesticides.
Eliminate Unnecessary Pesticide Applications Through IPM
Few applicators knowingly apply unnecessary pesticides because pesticides cost money. Every applicator should ask, will this
application pay for itself? Growers should not substitute pesticides for good management. Pesticides are necessary but should
only be part of a total pest control program, not the entire program.
The best method of reducing risks to wildlife is to use integrated pest management (IPM) practices. IPM incorporates cultural
methods such as crop rotation, date of planting, variety choices, and seeding rates with other methods of pest control to
maintain pest populations at tolerable levels. Under IPM, pesticides are used only when other methods are not successful and
pest damage to crops might otherwise exceed the cost of control.
Many pest management practices can help reduce the need for pesticides. Some additional control methods include crop
competition, crop rotation, tillage and cultivation, sanitation, planting resistant varieties, planting weed and disease free seed,
and using the natural controls present when possible.
A good example of non -pesticide control is a competitive crop. An early established, well developed crop can do much to help
control weeds. Plants emerging first have a competitive advantage over later emerging plants. Anything done to get quick crop
emergence that evenly covers the ground early will have a big impact on weeds. Later emerging weeds are at a tremendous
disadvantage and may not cause yield and quality losses. The competitiveness of weeds and crops differs between species.
Weeds such as wild oats, wild mustard, and kochia are very competitive, while others, such as redroot pigweed and foxtails are
generally less competitive. Some crops ranked in order of decreasing competitiveness are rye, barley, conventional height
wheat, semidwarf wheat, and flax.
Choose the Pesticide Least Toxic to Non -target Organisms
Choose the least toxic pesticide that will control the pest. Often more than one pesticide is registered for control of a particular
pest in a particular crop. Take time to compare pesticides and make sure you choose the one BEST suited for the job. Many
times the best choice will be the least expensive treatment, but that is not always the case. Sometimes the best choice would be
a higher priced pesticide with fewer risks for nontarget plants and animals.
Pesticide Toxicity to Wildlife
Pesticide applicators can plan a pesticide application that is less toxic to wildlife by examining pesticide toxicity and potential
for environmental injury to wildlife and wildlife habitats. This information can be found in tables presented in the back of this
publication.
When an applicator has identified the specific crop pest situation and checked local crop production guides, a pesticide can be
selected that minimizes risk to nontarget plants and animals and still achieves the desired level of control.
If the selected pesticide still poses a high threat to wildlife, the applicator would at least be aware of the risk and can take the
steps to minimize any potential threats by following recommendations in this publication.
Read the Pesticide Label
Certain pesticides pose a risk to wildlife or the environment. Some products are classified as RESTRICTED USE
PESTICIDES because of environmental hazards. Restricted use pesticides should only be applied by a certified applicator who
has been properly trained.
Pesticides that pose environmental risks are labeled to warn the applicator what the risks could be and what steps should be
taken to protect people, animals and the environment. These wamings can be found in the "Precautionary Statements" section
of the label. The precautionary section is divided into subsections dealing with "Hazards to Humans or Domestic Animals,"
Environmental Hazard" and "Physical or Chemical Hazard." The risks to wildlife and the environment may be found in
the "Environmental Hazard" section. It is a violation of federal law to apply pesticides in any way that is not consistent with
label instructions.
Hazards to Wildlife
If a particular pesticide is especially hazardous to wildlife, it will be stated on the label. For example:
• This product is highly toxic to bees.
• This product is toxic to fish.
• This product is toxic to birds and other wildlife.
The label may indicate that the product causes undesirable effects in the environment. In this case, the precautionary statement
may tell what to avoid doing. Labeling mayindicate limitations imposed to protect wildlife, including endangered species.
These limitations may include reduced rates, restrictions on types of application, or a ban on the pesticide's use within the
species range. The label also may indicate additional sources of information on proper application methods to reduce hazards.
These statements explain special hazards that the pesticides may pose. They should help when choosing the safest product for a
particular job and serve as a reminder to take extra precautions.
General Environmental Statements
General environmental statements appear on nearly every pesticide label as reminders of common sense actions needed to
avoid contaminating the environment. The absence of any or all of these statements DOES NOT change the requirement to
take adequate precautions.
Sometimes the statements will follow a "specific toxicity statement" and provide practical steps to avoid harm to wildlife.
Examples of general environmental statements include:
• Do not apply when runoff is likely to occur.
• Do not apply when weather conditions favor drift from treated areas.
• Do not contaminate water when cleaning equipment or disposing of wastes.
• Keep out of any body of water.
• Do not allow drift on desirable plants or trees.
• Do not apply when bees are likely to be in the area.
• Do not apply where the water table is close to the surface.
Note: It is the responsibility of every pesticide applicator to read and follow the label directions.
Use the Lowest Effective Rate
Many times the label will allow a range of rates to control a particular pest. Differences in pest size or stage, pest populations
and environmental conditions can affect the amount of pesticide needed. Often pesticide rates at the lower end of the rate range
can be used when pests are in sensitive growth stages, at lower populations and the weather and growing conditions are
favorable.
Use Buffer Zones
An area between the area sprayed and a sensitive area is called a buffer zone. This area can be.a grass strip or may even be part
of the crop that is not treated. This buffer area will help trap pesticides and prevent them from entering sensitive areas by spray
drift or by runoff.
Spot Spraying
Many times a pest is located only in a portion of the field. Spraying only the area where the pest is found, leaving the rest of the
field untreated, reduces potential risks and saves time and money.
Begin Spraying In the Middle of the Field
Most wildlife will be present near the edges of a field. Spraying the field by starting in the middle of the field will allow
wildlife time to escape or move out of the field area.
Trap Areas
Some farmers are experimenting with the use of trap areas. Farmers will seed these areas with an early maturing crop variety
ahead of normal planting dates. These areas may attract pests and if pest populations develop in the trap area, a pesticide
application can be made. Controlling pests in this manner can reduce chances that pesticides will be required on the rest of the
field.
Check Weather Conditions
A good applicator always checks the weather conditions before spraying. Weather conditions can greatly affect the pesticide
exposure through spray drift or runoff. Don't apply pesticides just before rains because pesticides could run off the treated field
with excess rainwater and potentially contaminate sensitive areas. Avoid spraying when weather conditions could cause spray
drift into sensitive areas.
Avoid Spray Drift
Spray drift can cause damage to wildlife or wildlife habitat. The following measures are available to greatly reduce drift.
Avoid spraying on windy days
Check the wind speed and direction. If conditions could cause spray drift into sensitive areas, don't
spray. If an application must be made you must take every precaution you can to prevent drift
from entering sensitive areas.
Another weather condition to avoid is a temperature inversion. Temperature inversions occur
when cooler air is near the ground and is beneath warmer air. Very small spray droplets will
remain suspended in the air and can move some distance.
Use a nonvolatile formulation
Some pesticides are volatile and can form vapors, usually on warmer (greater than 70 F) days,
which can drift into susceptible areas. If there is an alternative pesticide or formulation that is not
volatile and will control the pest, it should be used instead.
Increase Droplet Size
Spray nozzles produce spray droplets of many different sizes. Larger droplets are heavier and drift
less. Practices that increase droplet size will reduce drift, such as increasing nozzle size or water
volume, reducing spray pressure or using a drift retardant.
Use Larger Nozzle
Larger nozzles allow you to apply the same volume of spray with less spray pressure. Spray
droplets will be larger than those produced by a smaller nozzle with higher pressure.
Increase Water Volume
Increasing the water volume will decrease drift because water droplets will be larger and will tend
to drift less.
Use the Lowest Practical Pressure
Lower spray pressure will result in larger spray droplets that drift less than smaller droplets. If
spray pressure is reduced too much the spray pattern that results will not be uniform. Newer
nozzles such as the "LP" or "XR" type are designed to produce uniform spray patterns with
pressures of 15 to 20 pounds per square inch.
Use a Drift Retardant
A drift retardant will help reduce spray drift by increasing the size of spray droplets. Larger
droplets tend to drift less than small droplets.
Reduce Spray Boom Height
Set spray booms at the lowest height that will give uniform coverage. The closer the boom is to
the spray target the less chance there is for drift.
Use a Shielded Sprayer
Using a shielded sprayer will help reduce spray drift by protecting the spray from wind. Shielded
sprayers allow a wider selection of spraying times during the day and more total spraying time per
day. These time savers can be used to more precisely target crop areas and avoid sensitive areas.
More information on spray drift can be found at your state's Cooperative Extension Service county
office.
Summary
The responsibility to prevent or minimize the effects of pesticide applications on nontarget organisms rests with every pesticide
applicator. Information concerning the proper use and application of a pesticide can be found on the product label.
Reducing the risk of pesticide exposure to nontarget organisms requires applicators to incorporate crop scouting and IPM
techniques with a knowledge of wildlife life cycles and habitats in developing a farm pesticide application plan. Development.
of such a plan will insure not only the most cost effective means for controlling crop pest situations, but also result in the
greatest reduction of risk of pesticide exposure to wildlife.
Resource Material
Apply Pesticides Correctly: A Guide for Commercial Applicators, U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Commercial and Private Applicator Core Manual: Initial Certification, September 1989, Cooperative Extension Service,
Michigan State University.
Dexter, A. Herbicide Spray Drift. 1986. NDSU Extension Service. A-657 revised.
Extoxnet Cooperative Extension Offices, Cornell, U of Calif., Michigan State, Oregon State Univ.
Facemire, F. Charles, 1991. Impact of agricultural chemicals on wetland habitats and associated biota with special
reference to migratory birds. B 780, SDSU, Brookings, SD. 65 pp.
Herbicide Handbook of the Weed Science Society of America. Sixth Ed., 1989, Weed Science Society of America,
Champagne, Illinois, 61820. •
McBride, D.K., D.E. Peterson, H.A. Lamey, 1988, Persistence and Mobility of Pesticides in Soil and Water, NDSU
Extension Service. E-49, NDSU Fargo, ND 58105
Pesticide Applicator Training Manual: Core Manual, 2nd Ed., Chemicals -Pesticides Program, Cornell University, 1990. D.
Rutz, Director, R. Gardner, W. Smith.
Wildlife and Pesticides: A practical guide to reducing the risk
(continued)
Toxicity Tables
These tables provide toxicity comparisons for commonly used pesticides. These comparisons are intended to give
applicators the information needed to reduce the risk of an application to wildlife.
INSECTICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
acephate Organo-
(Orthene) phosphate
Aldicarb Carbamate
(Temik)
azinphos Organo-
methyl phosphate
(Guthion)
Bacillus Microbial
Thuringiensis
(various)
carbaryl Carbamate
(Sevin)
carbofuran Carbamate
(Furdan)
chlorpyrifos
(Lorsban)
diazinon
(various)
Organo-
phosphate
Organo-
phosphate
dimethoate Organo-
(Cygon) phosphate
I -H -(Birds) II -III- Highly toxic to mammals
(Mammls) I -(Fish and and birds through oral
aquatic insects) Extremely toxic to fish and
aquatic insects.
III -(Mammals) I- Extremely toxic to birds
(Birds, fish and aquatic and moderately toxic to
insects) mammals. Toxic to bees,
fish, and other aquatic
organisms.
I -(Birds, fish, and Moderate acute oral
aquatic insects) III- toxicity to mammals.
I -(Mammals) II -IV
(Birds) II -
(Fish/aqurtic insects)
V -(Birds and
mammals)
Toxicity class
III -(Birds and
mammals) I-
(Fish/aquatic insects)
Documented effects on
wildlife
Moderate to slight acute
oral toxicity to birds and
mammals Reduction in
ChE activity.
Best measures to reduce the risk of exposure
Increase water volumes to reduce drift. Avoid use
areas of high bird numbers. Use lowest
recommended effective rates. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, ponds, streams and
rivers.
I -Birds, fish, mammals Bird and mammal mortality Proper incorporation of granules. Consider
and aquatic insects) reported after ingestion of weather and terrain to avoid runoff potentials into
exposed granules. One of water areas.
the most toxic carbamate
pesticides. Extremely
toxicto aquatic organisms.
Extremely toxic to
mammals in formulations
containing a high
percentage of active
ingredient. Highly toxic to
fish and aquatic insects.
No documented effects on
wildlife.
III -IV -(Birds lII- Moderate acute/chronic
Scout fields to determine the presence of wildlife.
Avoid or delay direct application when wildlife is
present. Exercise caution to reduce the risk of
direct, drift, or runoff applications to water or
wetland areas. Avoid contaminating ponds,lakes,
and streams.
Apply according to label directions.
Avoid direct applications to wetlands and other
(Mammals) I -(Aquatic toxicity to birds, fish, and waters. Reduce potentials for drift and runoff by
insects)
mammals. Low persistence. using buffer zones.
Toxic to aquatic insects.
I -(All) Highly toxic to all forms of Avoid applying this chemical when wildlife is
wildlife even when applied present. Use buffer zones when applying near
at lowest recommended wetlands,other waters, and wooded areas. Use an
effective rate. alternate pestiicide. (Granular carbofuran has
been voluntarily cancelled and will be phased out
by 1994. Flowable is still registered.)
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Do not apply when wildlife are present.
Applications should be made only after a careful
evaluation. Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds,
lakes, and streams.
Avoid application (direct, drift or runoff) on water
areas/wetlands. Use buffer zones near water and
(Mammals) Extremely toxic to birds,
fish, and other aquatic
organisms. Pheasants are
particularly sensitive to this
pesticide.
Extremely toxic to birds,
mammals, fish, bee and
aquatic organisms.
Secondary poisoning in
birds eating treated insects
has been reported.
endosulfan Chlorinated I -(Fish and aquatic Fish kills associated with
(Thiodan) Hydrocarbon insects) II -IV (Birds) I- contaminated agricultural
II (Mammals) runoff. Concentrates of
<1.3 ppm were sufficient to pesticide.
cause mortality. Highly
toxic to aquatic
organisms/insects.
esfenvalerate Pyrethroid I (Fish) IV -(Bird and Highly toxic to fish, Measures to reduce the risks to wildlife. Avoid
aquatic insects. No reported applications (direct, drift, runoff in water bodies/
toxicity in birds/mammals. wetlands. Use lowest recommended effective
rates and buffer zones near water.
Ethyl and methyl parathion Prior to applying parathion a thorough scouting of
are extremely toxic to the field should be conducted. Field applications
birds, mammals through of parathion should be made prior to 10 a.m. or
both acute oral and dermal after 4 p.m. to minimize drift and leave buffer
exposure at recommended zone near critical wildlife habitats such as
application rates. These windbreaks and wetlands. Do not apply when
chemicals are highly toxic wildlife are present.
to bees fish and other
aquatic organisms.
See Esfenvalerate See esfenvalerate.
disulfoton Organo- I -(All)
(Di-Syston) phosphate
shelterbelts.
Proper field scouting to include a careful
evaluation of potential wildlife exposure will
reduce the risk. Do not apply when wildlife is
present.
Caution should be taken to avoid risks associated
with agricultural runoff. The use of buffer zone
will reduce risk associated with use of this
(Asana)
mammals)
parathion Organo- I -(All)
(methy ethyl) phosphate
(Penncap-M
various)
• fenvalerate Pyrethroid I -(Fish) IV-V(Bird and
(Pydrin) mammals)
fonofos Organo- I(A11)
(Dyfonate) phosphate
malathion Organo-
(Cythion) phosphate
III -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
methidathion Organo- II(AII)
(Supracide phosphate
OP)
phorate Organo- I(All)
(Thimet) phosphate
Highly toxic to fish,
mammals and birds due to
chemical action, high field
use and relatively long
persistence. Used as a
granular treatment.
No documented effects on
wildlife (birds/ mammals)
when used at recommended
application rates. Toxic to
bees, fish and other aquatic
organism.
High acute oral toxicity to
birds/mammals, bees and
fish.
Extremely high oral and
dermal toxicity has been
documented in birds and
mammals after exposure to
pesticide. Wildlife deaths
reported are related to
ingestion of improperly
incorporated granules, in
areas subject to flooding
and run off. Uptake of
chemical in plants may also
Complete incorporation of the product into the
soil will minimize wildlife exposure risks.
Consider weather and terrain to avoid runoff
contamination.
Avoid application (direct, drift or runoff) on water
areas/wetlands. Use near buffer zones near water.
Careful scouting of field to identify the presence
of wildlife and the subsequent avoidance of such
area and critical wildlife habitats during
application will minimize wildlife exposure risks.
In areas subject to flooding and runoff and where
wildlife are present in large concentrations
(migrations) the use of this pesticide should be
carefully evaluated. The pesticide must be
properly incorporated.
terbufos Organo-
(Counter) phosphate
permethin Synthetic
(Ambush pyrethroid
Pounce)
HERBICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
2,4-D Phenoxy
2,4-D Amine
2,4-D Ester (see 2,4,-D)
acifluorfen Biphenol
(Blazer) ether
alachlor Acetanilide
(various)
atrazine Triazine
(various)
bentazon Benzothia-
(various) diazoles
I(All)
I -(Fish and aquatic
insects) V -(Birds and
mammals)
Toxicity class
III -IV -(Birds and
mammals) II -
(Fish and other
aquatic
organisms)
III -V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I-
II(Fish and
aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) IV -
(Fish)
III -IV -(Birds,
mammals and
fish)
bromoxyni Benzonitrile I -(Fish and
1(Buctril) aquatic insects)
1I -IV -(Mammals
and birds)
clopyralid Pyridine IV -V -(Birds and
(Stinger) mammals) II -
cause wildlife exposure.
Extremely toxic to lab
mammals. Potential for
greatest impact due to
ingestion of granules.
Extremely toxic to aquatic
organisms. No documented
field effects on birds or
mammals.
Documented effects on wildlife
Moderately toxic to birds and
mammals. Highly toxic to insects,
fish. A reduction of birds broad-
leaved plants from applications can
result in a reduction in the nest
numbers of waterfowl and other
upland nesting birds. Use of a non
toxic oil vehicle during application
increases toxicity of the chemical to
egg embryos. Spray drift can harm
wooded areas.
No documented impacts on birds or
mammals. Toxic to aquatic
organisms. May damage susceptible
foliage (cover).
No documented impacts on birds and
mammals. Highly toxic to aquatic
insects and fish.
Slightly toxic to birds at high
concentrations. Indirect effects on
• aquatic fauna may result as the
chemical impacts aquatic plant
species. Toxic to fish and aquatic
invertebrates at high concentrations.
No documented impacts on birds and
mammals. Moderately toxic to
Rainbow trout.
Extremely toxic to aquatic
invertebrates No documented impacts
on birds and mammals.
No documented impacts on wildlife.
Spillage, failure to cover granules, heavy rains or
high winds could expose granules increasing the
risk. If such conditions exist do not apply if
wildlife is present. In areas subject to flooding
and runoff and where wildlife are present in large
concentrations (migrations) the use of this
pesticide should be carefully evaluated. The
pesticide must be properly incorporated. Risk can
be reduced if applied as an in -furrow or modified
in -furrow application.
Prevent direct, applications or drift and runoff
into wetlands and other water. Use a buffer zone
if applied near water areas.
Best measures to reduce the risk of exposure
In areas where waterfowl and other upland nest
apply with a water based spray mixture. Spot
spray where possible to reduce impacts on
potential nest cover. Avoid spray drift. Apply
amine formulation where drift is a concern. Use a
buffer zone when applied in wooded areas, or
near water.
Avoid spray drift. Use buffer zones near surface
water. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
Avoid spray drift and runoff contamination of
wetlands and other water areas by using buffer
zones. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
To minimize the impacts of agricultural runoff
carrying this chemical into wetlands and other
waters employ buffer zones. Use at lowest
effective rate.Use with caution in areas where
groundwater contamination is likely. Avoid
contaminating ponds, lakes, wetlands, and
streams.
Use buffer zones to reduce potential impacts to
aquatic habitats. Do not apply when conditions
favor drift. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating ponds,
lakes, wetlands, and streams.
Use buffer zones if applying near water areas.
Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes, wetlands, and
cyanazine Triazine
(Bladex)
cycloate
(Ro-Neet)
Thio-
carbamate
desmedop Carbamate
ham
(Betanex)
dicamba Benzoic
(Banvel) Acid
diclofop
(Hoelon)
difenzoqu
at
(Avenge)
Aryloxy-
phenoxy-
propionic
Acid
Bipyridilium
EPTC Thio-
(Eptam) carbamate
ethalflurali Dinitro-
aniline
(Sonalan)
fenoxapro
p (Whip)
(Option)
fluazifop
(Fusilade)
(Fish)
III -IV -(Birds and
mammals)
V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I -
(Fish and aquatic
organisms)
IV -(Birds and
mammals) I-(Fis
and aquatic
insects).
IV -(Birds
mammals, fish,
and aquatic
insects)
V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I- wildlife.
(Fish, and aquatic
insects)
IV -V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) II -
(Fish) I -(Aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -
(Fish)
Aryloxy- IV -V (Birds and
phenoxy- mammals) I -(Fish
propionic and aquatic
Acid insects)
Aryloxy- IV -V (Birds and
phenoxy- mammals) I -(Fish
propionic and aquatic
Acid insects)
glyphosate Amino Acid IV -V (Birds and
(Roundup) mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
(Rodeo) Amino Acid III -IV Fish and
aquatic insects.
imaza-
methabenz
(Assert)
MCPA- Phenoxy-
amine carboxylic
MCPA- Acid
ester
metsulfuro Sulfonyl
n (Ally) Urea,
Nicosulfur Sulfonyl-
on
Imidazoline
a
I
(
I
m
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) II -
Fish and aquatic
nsects)
II -IV (Birds and
mammals) I-
II(Fish and
quatic insects)
V -V (Birds and
mammals) II -III
Fish and aquatic
nsects)
V -V -(Birds and
ammals) IV -
Slightly toxic to aquatic invertebrates.
No documented impacts in birds or
mammals.
No documented field effects in
wildlife. Low acute oral and dermal
toxicity in laboratory mammals. Toxic
to fish.
No documented field effects in
h wildlife. Low toxicity to laboratory
animals. Toxic to fish.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Slightly toxic to aquatic
invertebrates.
No documented field effects on
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
Rodeo is slightly toxic to aquatic
organisms unlike its counterpart
Round -up.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
streams.
Use buffer zones if applying near wetland or
other waters. Use caution in areas where
groundwater contamination is likely.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
contaminating. wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Avoid spray drift.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
spray drift.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Use drift precautions. Apply the amine
formulation in areas where drift is a concern.
Avoidcontaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Avoid spray drift.
Apply according to label directions. Avoid spray
drift.
paraquat Bipyridilium
(Cyclone)
(Granioxo
ne- Extra)
pendimeth Dinitro-
alin anilien
(Prowl)
picloram Pyridine
(Tordon)
primisulfu Sulfonyl-
ron urea
(Beacon)
quizalofop Aryloxy-
(Assure) phenoxy- •
propionic
Acid
sethoxydi Cyclohex-
m (Poast) anedione
thifensulfu Sulfonyl-
ron urea
(Pinnacle)
triallate Thiocarb-
(Fargo) amate
tribenuron Sulfonyl-
(Express) urea
trifluralin Dinitro-
(various) aniline
(Fish and aquatic
invertabrates)
I -(Fish and
aquatic
organisms) (waterfowl
embroyos,
embroyos,
mammals/bird)
IV -(Birds and No documented field effects on Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds and
mammals) I -(Fish wildlife. streams.
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and No documented field effects on Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
mammals) I- wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and streams. Avoid spray drift. Use buffer zones
(Fish) mammals.Toxic to early life stage of when applying near water areas. Should not be .
fish.
Toxic to fish and other aquatic Use a buffer zone when applying near wetlands
organisms, duck egg embryos. slightly or other water areas. Avoid direct applications to
toxic to mammals and birds. wildlife and nests.
IV -V -(Birds,
mammals, fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -
(Fish)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) IV -
(Fish and aquatic
insects)
IV -V -(Birds
mammals and
aquatic insects)
II -(Fish)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) I -II -
(Fish and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds,
mammals and
fish) III (Aquatic
invertebrates)
IV -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
FUNGICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
benomyl Benzimida-
(Benlate) zole •
chlorothaloni Aromatic
1 (Bravo)
iprodione
(Rovral)
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Slightly toxic to aquatic
invertebrates.
Very low acute and subacute toxicity
to birds and mammals. Highly toxic to
fish and aquatic insects.
No documented field effect on
wildlife.
used where groundwater contamination is likely.
Apply according to label directions. Avoid spray
drift.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid spray drift and contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
High toxicity to aquatic invertebrate Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
and fish. streams.
Toxicity class
V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish)
V -(Birds and •
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
Dicarboximide V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
Documented effects on
wildlife
Toxic•to fish and aquatic
insects.
No documented field
effects on wildlife.
No documented field
effects on wildlife
Best measures to reduce the risk of
exposure
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds,
and streams. Use a buffer zone when
applying near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
mancozeb Ethylenebis
(Dithane, dithio-
Manzate, carbamate
Penncozeb)
propiconazol Triazole
e (Tilt)
aquatic insects)
V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) 1 -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
thiabendazol Benzimidazole V -(Birds and
e (Mertect) mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
triadimefon Triazole
(Bayleton)
thiophanate
methyl
(Topsin-M)
V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
Benzimidazole IV -V -(Birds and
mamals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
chemical. The five toxicity classes used are:
Class
I - Extremely toxic
II - Highly toxic
III - Moderately toxic
IV - Slightly toxic
V - Relatively toxic
No documented field
effects on wildlife.
No documented field
effects on wildlife
No documented field
effects on wildlife
No documented field
effects on wildlife
No documented field
effects on wildlife
LDSO < 40 mg/kg
LDSO 41-200 mg/kg
LDSO 201-1,000 mg/kg
LDSO 1001-5,000 mg/kg
LDSO > 5,000 mg/kg
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
values for acute toxicity comparisons among
Wildlife and Pesticides: A practical guide to
reducing the risk
• Introduction
• Potential Hazards to Wildlife
• Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
• Assessing Pesticide Risk to Wildlife
• Reducing Pesticide Exposure Risk
• Pesticide Toxicity to Wildlife
• Summary
• Toxicity Tables
Pesticides are widely used in agriculture today. Producers use pesticides because they are effective and generally reasonably
priced. The benefits include reduced yield losses and timesavings to the producer, and lower food and fiber costs for consumer.
There are some downside risks to pesticide use. Pesticide poisonings of people, livestock, and wildlife have occurred when
proper care was not exercised. Pesticide applicators must be very careful to avoid these risks.
Pesticides, when used with good judgement and care in accordance with label instructions, benefit both agriculture and the
environment. Proper use ensures that food and wildlife production objectives can both be realized.
Every pesticide applicator must accept responsibility to prevent or minimize the effects of pesticide applications on nontarget
organisms. There are several things you as an applicator can do to reduce the risk of pesticide exposure to nontarget plants,
animals and habitats.
Potential Hazards to Wildlife
In order to better protect wildlife from the risks of pesticide exposure it is necessary to understand what effects pesticides may
have on wildlife. •
Several hundred different pesticides are used in agriculture today. Each one of these products has different characteristics that
can affect the risk posed to different types of wildlife. While a particular pesticide may pose no harm to mammals, it may cause
severe harm to aquatic or bird life. Knowing these differences will greatly assist you in making the proper pesticide use
decision.
There is much documentation showing that wildlife can be harmed by particular pesticides. The documentation includes
laboratory toxicity studies on various types of wildlife, field trials that must be performed in order to register the pesticide, and
reports of incidents of wildlife poisoning.
In Oregon in the 1970s, aldrin and mercury treated seed grain killed thousands of wild geese and other wildlife. Thirty-six
Canada geese were killed in 1988 as a result of an application of carbofuran (Furadan) and disulfoton (Di-Syston) in Idaho.
Phorate (Thimet) was involved in the deaths of hundreds of waterfowl and several bald and golden eagles in South Dakota in
1989.
Many of the incidents involving wildlife kills result from misuse or illegal applications. One such incident occurred in 1990
when an applicator in North Dakota illegally applied carbofuran (Furadan) to carcasses for predator control. He was found
guilty of killing several forms of wildlife, possibly including a bald eagle.
Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife
Pesticides' effects on wildlife may be lethal, sublethal, acute, chronic, habitat related, or there may be no effect. In general the
risk a pesticide poses to wildlife is related to the pesticide type, its toxicity, the proximity of the application to wildlife habitat,
the dose, application rate, number of applications, the persistence of the pesticide m the environment, and its ability to
concentrate in the wildlife food chain. These factors interact with food habits and behavior of individual wildlife species to
produce a response.
Pesticide Type
In general, insecticides are more toxic to fish and wildlife than herbicides or fungicides. Some herbicides may harm wildlife by
damaging the wildlife habitat.
Many of the insecticides currently used are either the organophosphate or carbamate type. These insecticides work by
interfering with the central nervous system of insects. The central nervous system of fish or wildlife may be affected the same
way. The toxicity of the various organophosphate and carbamate insecticides ranges from slightly toxic products to products
that are highly toxic. The more toxic products are generally restricted use pesticides, which require applicators to be certified
by their state regulatory agency to purchase and apply products.
Synthetic pyrethroid insecticide use has been increasing. These synthesized insecticides are based on naturally occurring
pesticides, but have been modified to improve performance and persistence. Synthetic pyrethroids also work by interfering
with the central nervous system. Synthetic pyrethroids are low to medium in toxicity to mammals and birds because they can
quickly detoxify and excrete them. However, fish and aquatic invertebrates can not quickly detoxify or excrete synthetic
pyrethroids, so they are highly susceptible to poisoning by these products.
Herbicides and fungicides are generally low to moderately toxic to wildlife. Particular herbicides can have a large impact on
the plant life making up the wildlife habitat.
Direct Effects
Wildlife can be exposed to pesticides directly by eating contaminated food or water, breathing pesticides, or by skin
absorption.
The type and magnitude of the effect depends on two factors, the pesticide toxicity and pesticide quantity (dose). If exposure
causes the animal's death, it is referred to as a lethal effect.
Young birds that eat or are fed pesticide treated insects are at great risk of suffering lethal pesticide exposure effects. Sublethal
insecticide effects occur when damage to the central nervous system causes an animal to behave in a unusual manner. This
behavior may affect the animal's ability to survive or reproduce. Some typical sublethal responses in birds exposed to
pesticides include the inability to sing properly, establish a breeding territory, or attract a mate. Adults may be unable to care
for themselves or their young properly, resulting in death to the nestlings or increased chance of predation.
The lethal and sublethal effects of pesticides on wildlife and fish may occur from one exposure over a short time period (acute)
or they may result from exposures to small amounts over a longer time period (chronic). Pesticides commonly used today do
not persist as long in the environment as pesticides used years ago. The tradeoff is that the acute toxicity of some of these
modem pesticides is higher than the older, more persistent chemicals.
Indirect Effects
Wildlife in general, and birds in particular, may also experience lethal or sublethal effects without being directly exposed to a
pesticide. This typically occurs when a pesticide application destroys or disrupts food sources such as insects. Insects supply
the protein necessary for growing birds. Studies indicate that the growth of young birds can be stunted in areas where
insecticides have been used heavily, resulting in insect populations too low to meet young bird protein growth demands. Fish
that feed on aquatic insects and animals may also show stunted growth in areas of heavy insecticide use because their primary
food sources are killed. Inadequate diets also can affect fish reproduction and survival. Herbicides can reduce the amount of
cover and make the habitat less suitable for nesting.
Assessing Pesticide Risk to Wildlife
To properly assess the need for pesticides and the risk to wildlife, information must be gathered on the condition of the crop,
the pest situation, characteristics of candidate pesticides, present and expected weather, and some knowledge about the kinds
and behavior of wildlife living in the area. The importance of good judgement, practical experience and common sense cannot
be overemphasized. Prior to each and every pesticide application, the overall situation should be evaluated so that the expected
benefits of a pesticide application are realized and potential hazards are minimized. Good information is necessary to make
good judgements.
Monitor Fields Regularly
Field scouting must be done. It is important to be aware of the status of the field, the crop stage, general health, and yield
potential of the crop, as well as the number and growth stage of the various pests that are present. Careful scouting will reveal
any wildlife that may also be present. Most pests and most wildlife do not occur uniformly throughout a field. Drawing a map
of the field showing the locations of pest populations and wildlife along with recognizable landmarks can aid you in
developing a pest control plan that avoids possible effects on wildlife.
Identify Wildlife Signs, Seasons, and Habitats
One way to ensure that wildlife will not be impacted by a pesticide is to make the application when wildlife are not present.
Most wildlife signs can be easily determined while scouting the field. Virtually all agricultural crops will support some type of
wildlife. A wide assortment of wildlife will likely be visible during most scouting trips.
Areas where wildlife are most likely to be located are field perimeters and other areas where fields may come into contact with
windbreaks, wetlands, livestock watering ponds, fence rows, abandoned farmsteads, grasslands or odd areas.
Take note of areas where you actually see animals. Other evidence that wildlife are present and using the area includes signs
such as tracks, droppings, or foraging evidence.
If numerous wildlife signs are present, pesticide applicators can reduce potential impacts to wildlife by marking such areas on a
field map or leaving a flag in that area of a field. When spraying around sensitive areas, leave a buffer zone of at least one-half
the width of a sprayer boom. Another way to minimize potential impacts to wildlife is to restrict spraying activities in these
fields between the hours of 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. During this period, many wildlife will seek the protective cover of cropland,
particularly taller row crops, as they wait out the day prior to beginning evening and early moming foraging activities.
Critical Reproductive Periods and Habitats
Most wildlife reproduction occurs from May 1 to late June and early July. This is perhaps the most critical for many of our
resident and migratory wildlife and fish. To complete this reproduction, animals seek out suitable habitats.
These habitats can include wetlands, windbreaks and shelterbelts, fencerows, rangelands, and croplands. Wildlife typically
nest, birth, feed, and rear their young in areas that provide not only some type of protective coyer from the elements and
potential predators, but also sources of food.
The transition zones between habitat types, where one plant community changes to another, are preferred. These edges usually
produce the greatest variety of food plants, insects and seeds. This allows wildlife such as grouse, pheasants, and deer to feed
without venturing too far from protective cover. For this reason, most upland gamebird nests can be found in or near such
edges.
Wetlands are important feeding and brood rearing habitats for waterfowl. Insecticides applied near wetlands by ground
sprayers or aircraft can enter the habitat through drift or runoff and contaminate these areas. Depending on the insecticide type,
food sources may be destroyed, causing sublethal effects or a direct loss of young wildlife.
Similarly, shelterbelts and windbreaks are important habitats for many songbirds. Herbicide drift that results in injury to trees
and other vegetation can impair the ability of such habitats to provide safe, secure nesting sites. Insecticide drift can kill
nestlings and adult birds, as well as contaminate important insect food sources.
Reducing Pesticide Exposure Risk
Regular field scouting and a pest control plan should be a part of every producer's operation. Pests are best controlled by
manipulating cropping conditions to put pests at a disadvantage to the crop or beneficial organisms. Man and his crops are in
competition with pests, and ALL available methods for controlling pests should be considered, not just pesticides.
Eliminate Unnecessary Pesticide Applications Through IPM
Few applicators knowingly apply unnecessary pesticides because pesticides cost money. Every applicator should ask, will this
application pay for itself? Growers should not substitute pesticides for good management. Pesticides are necessary but should
only be part of a total pest control program, not the entire program.
The best method of reducing risks to wildlife is to use integrated pest management (IPM) practices. IPM incorporates cultural
methods such as crop rotation, date of planting, variety choices, and seeding rates with other methods of pest control to
maintain pest populations at tolerable levels. Under IPM, pesticides are used only when other methods are not successful and
pest damage to crops might otherwise exceed the cost of control.
Many pest management practices can help reduce the need for pesticides. Some additional control methods include crop
competition, crop rotation, tillage and cultivation, sanitation, planting resistant varieties, planting weed and disease free seed,
and using the natural controls present when possible.
A good example of non -pesticide control is a competitive crop. An early established, well developed crop can do much to help
control weeds. Plants emerging first have a competitive advantage over later emerging plants. Anything done to get quick crop
emergence that evenly covers the ground early will have a big impact on weeds. Later emerging weeds are at a tremendous
disadvantage and may not cause yield and quality losses. The competitiveness of weeds and crops differs between species.
Weeds such as wild oats, wild mustard, and kochia are very competitive, while others, such as redroot pigweed and foxtails are
generally less competitive. Some crops ranked in order of decreasing competitiveness are rye, barley, conventional height
wheat, semidwarf wheat, and flax.
Choose the Pesticide Least Toxic to Non -target Organisms
Choose the least toxic pesticide that will control the pest. Often more than one pesticide is registered for control of a particular
pest in a particular crop. Take time to compare pesticides and make sure you choose the one BEST suited for the job. Many
times the best choice will be the least expensive treatment, but that is not always the case. Sometimes the best choice would be
a higher priced pesticide with fewer risks for nontarget plants and animals.
Pesticide Toxicity to Wildlife
Pesticide applicators can plan a pesticide application that is less toxic to wildlife by examining pesticide toxicity and potential
for environmental injury to wildlife and wildlife habitats. This information can be found in tables presented in the back of this
publication.
When an applicator has identified the specific crop pest situation and checked local crop production guides, a pesticide can be
selected that minimizes risk to nontarget plants and animals and still achieves the desired level of control.
If the selected pesticide still poses a high threat to wildlife, the applicator would at least be aware of the'risk and can take the
steps to minimize any potential threats by following recommendations in this publication.
Read the Pesticide Label
Certain pesticides pose a risk to wildlife or the environment. Some products are classified as RESTRICTED USE
PESTICIDES because of environmental hazards. Restricted use pesticides should only be applied by a certified applicator who
has been properly trained.
Pesticides that pose environmental risks are labeled to warn the applicator what the risks could be and what steps should be
taken to protect people, animals and the environment. These warnings can be found in the "Precautionary Statements" section
of the label. The precautionary section is divided into subsections dealing with "Hazards to Humans or Domestic Animals,"
Environmental Hazard" and "Physical or Chemical Hazard." The risks to wildlife and the environment may be found in
the "Environmental Hazard" section. It is a violation of federal law to apply pesticides in any way that is not consistent with
label instructions.
Hazards to Wildlife
If a particular pesticide is especially hazardous to wildlife, it will be stated on the label. For example:
• This product is highly toxic to bees.
• This product is toxic to fish.
• This product is toxic to birds and other wildlife.
The label may indicate that the product causes undesirable effects in the environment. In this case, the precautionary statement
may tell what to avoid doing. Labeling may indicate limitations imposed to protect wildlife, including endangered species.
These limitations may include reduced rates, restrictions on types of application, or a ban on the pesticide's use within the
species range. The label also may indicate additional sources of information on proper application methods to reduce hazards.
These statements explain special hazards that the pesticides may pose. They should help when choosing the safest product for a
particular job and serve as a reminder to take extra precautions.
General Environmental Statements
General environmental statements appear on nearly every pesticide label as reminders of common sense actions needed to
avoid contaminating the environment. The absence of any or all of these statements DOES NOT change the requirement to
take adequate precautions.
Sometimes the statements will follow a "specific toxicity statement" and provide practical steps to avoid harm to wildlife.
Examples of general environmental statements include:
• Do not apply when runoff is likely to occur.
• Do not apply when weather conditions favor drift from treated areas.
• Do not contaminate water when cleaning equipment or disposing of wastes.
• Keep out of any body of water.
• Do not allow drift on desirable plants or trees.
• Do not apply when bees are likely to be in the area.
• Do not apply where the water table is close to the surface.
Note: It is the responsibility of every pesticide applicator to read and follow the label directions.
Use the Lowest Effective Rate
Many times the label will allow a range of rates to control a particular pest. Differences in pest size or stage, pest populations
and environmental conditions can affect the amount of pesticide needed. Often pesticide rates at the lower end of the rate range
can be used when pests are in sensitive growth stages, at lower populations and the weather and growing conditions are
favorable.
Use Buffer Zones
An area between the area sprayed and a sensitive area is called a buffer zone. This area can be a grass strip or may even be part
of the crop that is not treated. This buffer area will help trap pesticides and prevent them from entering sensitive areas by spray
drift or by runoff.
Spot Spraying
Many times a pest is located only in a portion of the field. Spraying only the area where the pest is found, leaving the rest of the
field untreated, reduces potential risks and saves time and money.
Begin Spraying In the Middle of the Field
Most wildlife will be present near the edges of a field. Spraying the field by starting in the middle of the field will allow
wildlife time to escape or move out of the field area.
Trap Areas
Some farmers are experimenting with the use of trap areas. Farmers will seed these areas with an early maturing crop variety
ahead of normal planting dates. These areas may attract pests and if pest populations develop in the trap area, a pesticide
application can be made. Controlling pests in this manner can reduce chances that pesticides will be required on the rest of the
field.
Check Weather Conditions
A good applicator always checks the weather conditions before spraying. Weather conditions can greatly affect the pesticide
exposure through spray drift or runoff. Don't apply pesticides just before rains because pesticides could run off the treated field
with excess rainwater and potentially contaminate sensitive areas. Avoid spraying when weather conditions could cause spray
drift into sensitive areas.
Avoid Spray Drift
Spray drift can cause damage to wildlife or wildlife habitat. The following measures are available to greatly reduce drift.
Avoid spraying on windy days
Check the wind speed and direction. If conditions could cause spray drift into sensitive areas, don't
spray. If an application must be made you must take every precaution you can to prevent drift
from entering sensitive areas.
Another weather condition to avoid is a temperature inversion. Temperature inversions occur
when cooler air is near the ground and is beneath warmer air. Very small spray droplets will
remain suspended in the air and can move some distance.
Use a nonvolatile formulation
Some pesticides are volatile and can form vapors, usually on warmer (greater than 70 F) days,
which can drift into susceptible areas. If there is an alternative pesticide or formulation that is not
volatile and will control the pest, it should be used instead.
Increase Droplet Size
Spray nozzles produce spray droplets of many different sizes. Larger droplets are heavier and drift
less. Practices that increase droplet size will reduce drift, such as increasing nozzle size or water
volume, reducing spray pressure or using a drift retardant.
Use Larger Nozzle
Larger nozzles allow you to apply the same volume of spray with less spray pressure. Spray
droplets will be larger than those produced by a smaller nozzle with higher pressure.
Increase Water Volume
Increasing the water volume will decrease drift because water droplets will be larger and will tend
to drift less.
Use the Lowest Practical Pressure
Lower spray pressure will result in larger spray droplets that drift less than smaller droplets. If
spray pressure is reduced too much the spray pattern that results will not be uniform. Newer
nozzles such as the "LP" or "XR" type are designed to produce uniform spray patterns with
pressures of 15 to 20 pounds per square inch.
Use a Drift Retardant
A drift retardant will help reduce spray drift by increasing the size of spray droplets. Larger
droplets tend to drift less than small droplets.
Reduce Spray Boom Height
Set spray booms at the lowest height that will give uniform coverage. The closer the boom is to
the spray target the less chance there is for drift.
Use a Shielded Sprayer
Using a shieldedsprayer will help reduce spray drift by protecting the spray from wind. Shielded
sprayers allow a wider selection of spraying times during the day and more total spraying time per
day. These time savers can be used to more precisely target crop areas and avoid sensitive areas.
More information on spray drift can be found at your state's Cooperative Extension Service county
office.
Summary
The responsibility to prevent or minimize the effects of pesticide applications on nontarget organisms rests with every pesticide
applicator. Information conceming the proper use and application of a pesticide can be found on the product label.
Reducing the risk' of pesticide exposure to nontarget organisms requires applicators to incorporate crop scouting and IPM
techniques with a knowledge of wildlife life cycles and habitats in developing a farm pesticide application plan. Development.
of such a plan will insure not only the most cost effective means for controlling crop pest situations, but also result in the
greatest reduction of risk of pesticide exposure to wildlife.
Resource Material
Apply Pesticides Correctly: A Guide for Commercial Applicators, U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Commercial and Private Applicator Core Manual: Initial Certification, September 1989, Cooperative Extension Service,
Michigan State University.
Dexter, A. Herbicide Spray Drift. 1986. NDSU Extension Service. A-657 revised.
Extoxnet Cooperative Extension Offices, Comell, U of Calif., Michigan State, Oregon State Univ.
Facemire, F. Charles, 1991. Impact of agricultural chemicals on wetland habitats and associated biota with special
reference to migratory birds. B 780, SDSU, Brookings, SD. 65 pp.
Herbicide Handbook of the Weed Science Society of America. Sixth Ed., 1989, Weed Science Society of America,
Champagne, Illinois, 61820.
McBride,.D.K., D.E. Peterson, H.A. Lamey, 1988, Persistence and Mobility of Pesticides in Soil and Water, NDSU
Extension Service. E-49, NDSU Fargo, ND 58105
Pesticide Applicator Training Manual: Core Manual, 2nd Ed., Chemicals -Pesticides Program, Comell University, 1990. D.
Rutz, Director, R. Gardner, W. Smith.
Wildlife and Pesticides: A practical guide to reducing the risk
(continued)
Toxicity Tables
These tables provide toxicity comparisons for commonly used pesticides. These comparisons are intended to give
applicators the information needed to reduce the risk of an application to wildlife.
INSECTICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
acephate Organo-
(Orthene) phosphate
Aldicarb Carbamate
(Temik)
azinphos Organo-
methyl phosphate
(Guthion)
Bacillus Microbial
Thuringiensis
(various)
carbaryl Carbamate
(Sevin)
carbofuran Carbamate
(Furdan)
chlorpyrifos
(Lorsban)
diazinon
(various)
Organo-
phosphate
Organo-
phosphate
dimethoate Organo-
(Cygon) phosphate
Toxicity class
III -(Birds and
mammals) I-
(Fish/aquatic insects)
I -Birds, fish, mammals
and aquatic insects)
I -(Mammals) II -IV
(Birds) II -
(Fish/aqurtic insects)
V -(Birds and
mammals)
Documented effects on
wildlife
Moderate to slight acute
oral toxicity to birds and
mammals Reduction in
ChE activity.
Bird and mammal mortality
reported after ingestion of
exposed granules. One of
the most toxic carbamate
pesticides. Extremely
toxicto aquatic organisms.
Extremely toxic to
mammals in formulations
containing a high
percentage of active
ingredient. Highly toxic to
fish and aquatic insects.
No documented effects on
wildlife.
Best measures to reduce the risk of exposure
Increase water volumes to reduce drift. Avoid use
areas of high bird numbers. Use lowest
recommended effective rates. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, ponds, streams and
rivers.
Proper incorporation of granules. Consider
weather and terrain to avoid runoff potentials into
water areas.
Scout fields to determine the presence of wildlife.
Avoid or delay direct application when wildlife is
present. Exercise caution to reduce the risk of
direct, drift, or runoff applications to water or
wetland areas. Avoid contaminating ponds,lakes,
and streams.
Apply according to label directions.
III -IV -(Birds III- Moderate acute/chronic Avoid direct applications to wetlands and other
(Mammals) I -(Aquatic toxicity to birds, fish, and waters. Reduce potentials for drift and runoff by
insects) mammals. Low persistence. using buffer zones.
Toxic to aquatic insects.
1-(A11)
I -II -(Birds) II-III-
(Mammis) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
III -(Mammals) I -
(Birds, fish and aquatic
insects)
I -(Birds, fish, and
aquatic insects) 111 -
Highly toxic to all forms of
wildlife even when applied
at lowest recommended
effective rate.
Highly toxic to mammals
and birds through oral
Extremely toxic to fish and
aquatic insects.
Extremely toxic to birds
and moderately toxic to
mammals. Toxic to bees,
fish, and other aquatic
organisms.
Moderate acute oral
toxicity to mammals.
Avoid applying this chemical when wildlife is
present. Use buffer zones when applying near
wetlands, other waters, and wooded areas. Use an
alternate pestiicide. (Granular carbofuran has
been voluntarily cancelled and will be phased out
by 1994. Flowable is still registered.)
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Do not apply when wildlife are present.
Applications should be made only after a careful
evaluation. Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds,
lakes, and streams.
Avoid application (direct, drift or runoff) on water
areas/wetlands. Use buffer zones near water and
(Mammals) Extremely toxic to birds,
fish, and other aquatic
organisms. Pheasants are
particularly sensitive to this
pesticide.
disulfoton Organo- I -(All) Extremely toxic to birds,
(Di-Syston) phosphate mammals, fish, bee and
aquatic organisms.
Secondary poisoning in
birds eating treated insects
has been reported.
endosulfan I -(Fish and aquatic Fish kills associated with
(Thiodan) insects) II -IV (Birds) I- contaminated agricultural
II (Mammals) • runoff. Concentrates of
<1.3 ppm were sufficient to
cause mortality. Highly
toxic to aquatic
organisms/insects.
esfenvalerate Pyrethroid I (Fish) IV -(Bird and Highly toxic to fish,
(Asana) mammals) aquatic insects. No reported
Chlorinated
Hydrocarbon
parathion Organo- I -(A11)
(methy ethyl) phosphate
(Penncap-M
various)
fenvalerate Pyrethroid
(Pydrin)
fonofos Organo-
(Dyfonate) phosphate
shelterbelts.
Proper field scouting to include a careful
evaluation of potential wildlife exposure will
reduce the risk. Do not apply when wildlife is
present.
Caution should be taken to avoid risks associated
with agricultural runoff. The use of buffer zone
will reduce risk associated with use of this
pesticide.
Measures to reduce the risks to wildlife. Avoid
applications (direct, drift, runoff in water bodies/
toxicity in birds/mammals. wetlands. Use lowest recommended effective
rates and buffer zones near water.
Ethyl and methyl parathion Prior to applying parathion a thorough scouting of
are extremely toxic to
birds, mammals through
both acute oral and dermal
exposure at recommended
application rates. These
chemicals are highly toxic
to bees fish and other
aquatic organisms.
I -(Fish) IV-V(Bird and See Esfenvalerate
mammals)
I(A11) Highly toxic to fish,
mammals and birds due to
chemical action, high field
use and relatively long
persistence. Used as a
granular treatment.
malathion Organo- III -(Birds and No documented effects on
(Cythion) phosphate mammals) I -(Fish and wildlife (birds/ mammals)
aquatic insects)
methidathion Organo- II(All)
(Supracide phosphate
OP)
phorate
(Thimet)
Organo- I(AII)
phosphate
the field should be conducted. Field applications
of parathion should be made prior to 10 a.m. or
after 4 p.m. to minimize drift and leave buffer
zone near critical wildlife habitats such as
windbreaks and wetlands. Do not apply when
wildlife are present.
See esfenvalerate.
Complete incorporation of the product into the
soil will minimize wildlife exposure risks.
Consider weather and terrain to avoid runoff
contamination.
Avoid application (direct, drift or runoff) on water
areas/wetlands. Use near buffer zones near water.
when used at recommended
application rates. Toxic to
bees, fish and other aquatic
organism.
High acute oral toxicity to
birds/mammals, bees and
fish.
Extremely high oral and
dermal toxicity has been
documented in birds and
mammals after exposure to
pesticide. Wildlife deaths •
reported are related to
ingestion of improperly
incorporated granules, in
areas subject to flooding
and run off. Uptake of
chemical in plants may also
Careful scouting of field to identify the presence
of wildlife and the subsequent avoidance of such
area and critical wildlife habitats during
application will minimize wildlife exposure risks.
In areas subject to flooding and runoff and where
wildlife are present in large concentrations
(migrations) the use of this pesticide should be
carefully evaluated. The pesticide must be
properly incorporated.
terbufos Organo-
(Counter) phosphate
permethin Synthetic
(Ambush pyrethroid
Pounce)
HERBICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
2,4-D Phenoxy
2,4-D Amine
2,4-D Ester (see 2,4,-D)
acifluorfen Biphenol
(Blazer) ether
alachlor Acetanilide
(various)
atrazine Triazine
(various)
bentazon Benzothia-
(various) diazoles
I(AI l)
I -(Fish and aquatic
insects) V -(Birds and
mammals)
Toxicity class
III -IV -(Birds and
mammals) II -
(Fish and other
aquatic
organisms)
III -V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I-
II(Fish and
aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) IV -
(Fish)
III -IV -(Birds,
mammals and
fish)
bromoxyni Benzonitrile I -(Fish and
1 (Buctril) aquatic insects)
II -IV -(Mammals
and birds)
clopyralid Pyridine IV -V -(Birds and
(Stinger) mammals) II -
cause wildlife exposure.
Extremely toxic to lab
mammals. Potential for
greatest impact due to
ingestion of granules.
Extremely toxic to aquatic
organisms. No documented
field effects on birds or
mammals.
Documented effects on wildlife
Moderately toxic to birds and
mammals. Highly toxic to insects,
fish. A reduction of birds broad-
leaved plants from applications can
result in a reduction in the nest
numbers of waterfowl and other
upland nesting birds. Use of a non
toxic oil vehicle during application
increases toxicity of the chemical to
egg embryos. Spray drift can harm
wooded areas.
No documented impacts on birds or
mammals. Toxic to aquatic
organisms. May damage susceptible
foliage (cover).
No documented impacts on birds and
mammals. Highly toxic to aquatic
insects and fish.
Slightly toxic to birds at high
concentrations. Indirect effects on
aquatic fauna may result as the
chemical impacts aquatic plant
species. Toxic to fish and aquatic
invertebrates at high concentrations.
No documented impacts on birds and
mammals. Moderately toxic to
Rainbow trout.
Extremely toxic to aquatic.
invertebrates No documented impacts
on birds and mammals.
No documented impacts on wildlife.
Spillage, failure to cover granules, heavy rains or
high winds could expose granules increasing the
risk. If such conditions exist do not apply if
wildlife is present. In areas subject to flooding
and runoff and where wildlife are present in large
concentrations (migrations) the use of this
pesticide should be carefully evaluated. The
pesticide must be properly incorporated. Risk can
be reduced if applied as an in -furrow or modified
in -furrow application.
Prevent direct, applications or drift and runoff
into wetlands and other water. Use a buffer zone
if applied near water areas.
Best measures to reduce the risk of exposure
In areas where waterfowl and other upland nest
apply with a water based spray mixture. Spot
spray where possible to reduce impacts on
potential nest cover. Avoid spray drift. Apply
amine formulation where drift is a concern. Use a
buffer zone when applied in wooded areas, or
near watei.
Avoid spray drift. Use buffer zones near surface
water. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
Avoid spray drift and runoff contamination of
wetlands and other water areas by using buffer
zones. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
To minimize the impacts of agricultural runoff
carrying this chemical into wetlands and other
waters employ buffer zones. Use at lowest
effective rate.Use with caution in areas where
groundwater contamination is likely. Avoid
contaminating ponds, lakes, wetlands, and
streams.
Use buffer zones to reduce potential impacts to
aquatic habitats. Do not apply when conditions
favor drift. Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes,
wetlands, and streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating ponds,
lakes, wetlands, and streams.
Use buffer zones if applying near water areas.
Avoid contaminating ponds, lakes, wetlands, and
cyanazine
(Bladex)
cycloate
(Ro-Neet)
desmedop
ham
(Betanex)
Triazine
Thio-
carbamate
Carbamate
dicamba Benzoic
(Banvel) Acid
diclofop
(Hoelon)
difenzoqu
at
(Avenge)
Aryloxy-
phenoxy-
propionic
Acid
(Fish)
III -IV -(Birds and
mammals)
V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I -
Slightly toxic to aquatic invertebrates.
No documented impacts in birds or
mammals.
No documented field effects in
wildlife. Low acute oral and dermal
streams.
Use buffer zones if applying near wetland or
other waters. Use caution in areas where
groundwater contamination is likely.
Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
(Fish and aquatic toxicity in laboratory mammals. Toxic streams.
organisms) , to fish.
IV -(Birds and No documented field effects in Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
mammals) I -(Fish wildlife. Low toxicity to laboratory contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
and aquatic animals. Toxic to fish. streams.
insects).
IV -(Birds
mammals, fish,
and aquatic
insects)
V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) I -
(Fish, and aquatic
insects)
Bipyridilium IV -V -(Birds) IV -
(Mammals) II -
(Fish) I -(Aquatic
insects)
EPTC Thio-
(Eptam) carbamate
ethalflurali Dinitro-
n aniline
(Sonalan)
fenoxapro Aryloxy-
p (Whip) phenoxy-
(Option) propionic
Acid •
fluazifop Aryloxy-
(Fusilade) phenoxy-
propionic
Acid
glyphosate Amino Acid
(Roundup)
(Rodeo) Amino Acid
imaza- Imidazoline
methabenz
(Assert)
MCPA- Phenoxy-
amine carboxylic
MCPA- Acid
ester
metsulfuro Sulfonyl
n (Ally) Urea
Nicosulfur Sulfonyl-
on
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Slightly toxic to aquatic
invertebrates.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
IV -V (Birds and No documented field effects on
mammals) I -(Fish wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
and aquatic mammals.
insects)
IV -V (Birds and No documented field effects on
mammals) I- wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
(Fish) mammals.
IV -V (Birds and No documented field effects on
mammals) I -(Fish wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
and aquatic mammals.
insects)
IV -V (Birds and No documented field effects on
mammals) I -(Fish wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
and aquatic mammals.
insects)
IV -V (Birds and No documented field effects on
mammals) I -(Fish wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
and aquatic
insects)
III -IV Fish and
aquatic insects.
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) II -
(Fish and aquatic
insects)
III -IV (Birds and
mammals) I-
III(Fish and
aquatic insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) II -III
(Fish and aquatic
insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) IV -
mammals.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Avoid spray drift.
Rodeo is slightly toxic to aquatic Apply according to label instructions. Avoid
organisms unlike its counterpart spray drift.
Round -up.
No documented field effects on Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and streams.
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Use drift precautions. Apply the amine
formulation in areas where drift is a concern.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Avoid spray drift.
Apply according to label directions. Avoid spray
drift.
pendimeth Dinitro-
alin anilien
(Prowl)
picloram Pyridine
(Tordon)
primisulfu Sulfonyl-
ron urea -
(Beacon)
quizalofop Aryloxy-
(Assure) phenoxy-
propionic
Acid
sethoxydi Cyclohex-
m (Poast) anedione
thifensulfu Sulfonyl-
ron urea
(Pinnacle)
triallate Thiocarb-
(Fargo) amate
tribenuron Sulfonyl-
(Express) urea
trifluralin Dinitro-
(various) aniline
(Fish and aquatic
invertabrates)
paraquat Bipyridilium I -(Fish and
(Cyclone) aquatic
(Gramoxo organisms) II-III-
ne- Extra) (waterfowl
embroyos,
mammals/bird)
IV -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -
(Fish)
IV -V -(Birds,
mammals, fish
and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) I -
(Fish)
IV -V (Birds and
mammals) IV -
(Fish and aquatic
insects)
IV -V -(Birds
mammals and
aquatic insects)
II -(Fish)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) I -II -
(Fish and aquatic
insects)
IV -V (Birds,
mammals and
fish) III (Aquatic
invertebrates)
IV -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish
and aquatic
insects)
FUNGICIDES
Pesticide
(Trade
name) Family
benomyl Benzimida-
(Benlate) zole
chlorothaloni Aromatic
I (Bravo)
iprodione
(Rovral)
Toxic to fish and other aquatic Use a buffer zone when applying near wetlands
organisms, duck egg embryos. slightly or other water areas. Avoid direct applications to
toxic to mammals and birds. wildlife and nests.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.Toxic to early life stage of
fish.
No documented field effects on
wildlife.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Low toxicity in lab birds and
mammals.
No documented field effects on
wildlife. Slightly toxic to aquatic
invertebrates.
Very low acute and subacute toxicity
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams. Avoid spray drift. Use buffer zones
when applying near water areas. Should not be
used where groundwater contamination is likely.
Apply according to label directions. Avoid spray
drift.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Avoid spray drift. Avoid contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
to birds and mammals. Highly toxic to streams.
fish and aquatic insects.
No documented field effect on
wildlife.
High toxicity to aquatic invertebrate
and fish.
Toxicity class
V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish)
.V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
Dicarboximide V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
Documented effects on
wildlife
Toxic to fish and aquatic
insects.
No documented field
effects on wildlife.
No documented field
effects on wildlife
Avoid spray drift and contaminating wetlands,
ponds, lakes, and streams.
Avoid contaminating wetlands, ponds, lakes, and
streams.
Best measures to reduce the risk of
exposure
Avoid contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds,
and streams. Use a buffer zone when
applying near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
mancozeb Ethylenebis
(Dithane, dithio-
Manzate, carbamate
Penncozeb)
propiconazol Triazole
e (Tilt)
aquatic insects)
V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
IV -V -(Birds and
mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
thiabendazol Benzimidazole V -(Birds and
e (Mertect) mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
triadimefon Triazole V -(Birds and
(Bayleton) mammals) I -(Fish and
aquatic insects)
thiophanate Benzimidazole IV -V -(Birds and
methyl mamals) I -(Fish and
(Topsin-M) aquatic insects).
No documented field
effects on wildlife.
No documented field
effects on wildlife
No documented field
effects on wildlife
No documented field
effects on wildlife
No documented field
effects on wildlife
Toxicity class data is based on acute oral rate median lethal dose (LDSO)
chemical. The five toxicity classes used are:
Class
I - Extremely toxic LDSO < 40 mg/kg
II - Highly toxic LDSO 41-200 mg/kg
III - Moderately toxic LDSO 201-1,000 mg/kg
IV - Slightly toxic LDSO 1001-5,000 mg/kg
V - Relatively toxic LDSO > 5,000 mg/kg
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
Apply according to label instruction. Avoid
contaminating wetlands, lakes, ponds, and
streams. Use a buffer zone when applying
near water.
values for acute toxicity comparisons among
HERBICIDE USE IN ROLLING HILLS
by
Flavio Bisignano
• CONTENTS
I. What is a Weed?
II. Methods to Control Weeds
III. At Issue: Weed Killers, their Pros and Cons
IV. Plant Ecology and the Ecological Role of Weeds
V. Expanding the Concept of Ecology
VI. Closing Thoughts
VII. References
Z. What is a Weed?
"Any plant growing where it is not wanted", defines a weed.
For example, when dandelions are cultivated as fresh greens to
be eaten - they are not perceived as weeds. When dandelions
invade the lawn, they become a nuisance.
The term "weed" is a non -technical word for many herbaceous
(non -woody) plants growing wild . These are unwanted, self -
propagating plants as opposed to cultivated plants whose seeds
are deliberately sown.
Why are some plants unwanted?
1. Any plant robbing the soil of nutrients and moisture
stunts the growth of cultivated plants.
2. Root stems of some weeds multiply underground, choking
out the root systems of wanted plants.
3. The resiliency of some weed seeds allow the seeds to
be buried in soil remaining dormant for years and then
germinate.
4. Weeds serve as hosts to fungi that spread to
cultivated plants. Other weeds serve as a source for
viruses. Some insects that directly attack cultivated
plants, breed on weeds.
5. Weeds that grow in hayfields are of low food value•.
Some weeds eaten by cows leave an unpleasant flavor in
milk. Buttercups are weeds that thrive in pastures
where cows graze. However, they contain an irritating
juice that cattle dislike.
6. Weeds with pointed seed pods may get caught in the
coats of animals causing discomfort.
Plants, wanted or unwanted, could not exist without soil.
Without plants, no food chain could evolve. All green plants
absorb mineral nutrients from the soil for metabolic activity.
Particular species of plants adapt to particular kinds of
soil. For example, the optimal environment for cactus plants
is soil with low moisture content. The soil could not form
without water and the atmosphere.
Plants interact with elements in the soil to provide the
nutrients needed for growth. Nitrogen, an essential nutrient
cannot be used by the plant directly from the atmosphere.
Nitrogen forms 16 percent of all living tissue. Atmospheric
nitrogen is made available to plants by the process of
nitrification.
Geologically, the earth's crust is a shell of solid rock about
20 to 30 miles thick. Soil is the link between the rock shell
and vegetation on the earth's surface. Soil is a mix of
disintegrated rock and decayed organic matter that is
populated with microscopic life. Capillaries throughout the
particle mix are pore space occupying air and water.
Soil formation is a weathering process. Atmospheric conditions
and living organisms are in constant interaction with
inorganic rock. Temperature is a powerful agent in
fragmenting rock. Rocks are composed of various minerals
(naturally occurring chemical elements of inorganic
compounds). While all minerals expand in heat some expand
more than others. The uneven expansion of diverse minerals
crack rocks, causing crevices into which water seeps. In cold
weather, the water freezes causing ice in the crevices to
exert enough pressure to split rocks. Over the centuries, the
cycle of freezing, thawing, and refreezing are the physical
processes chemical weathering involves micro-organisms to
convert elements from air and water into nutrients that plants
can use. The metabolic activity of the soil is upon bacteria,
fungi, and algae (algae is the traditional term for unrelated
groups of photo synthetic organisms). An example: legumes
would starve for lack of nitrogen without soil nitrogen -fixing
bacteria to form root nodules on the plants. In the process,
atmospheric nitrogen is converted into nitrogenous compounds.
In simpler terms, the roots supply carbohydrates for the
bacteria. In a complex process, these bacteria combine free
nitrogen from the air with oxygen to form nitrates.
Eventually, nitrogen as a vital element of living tissue, is
present in the form of amino acids that make-up chains of
protein (clover and alfalfa'are examples of legumes).
II. Methods to Control Weeds
Cultivation: The mechanical removal of weeds by a garden
tool such as a hoe.
Crop Rotation: In farming, weeds can be kept in check by
planting a different crop in the same field every few years.
For example, weeds invading a cornfield would be of a
different plant species than the weeds found in a hayfield.
Take over by new weeds attracted to a newly planted crop could
starve out most weed seeds remaining in the soil attracted to
the previous year's crop.
Mowing and Burning: Temporary control of weeds such as burning
in open range country, along highways\irrigation ditches,
mowing.
Plant -eating insects: A biological control. A historic
example, at the turn of this century the Klamath weed (goat
weed) migrated from its native habitat in Europe. Having no
ecology in this country - which means there were no natural
predators to stop the goat weed spread to the Klamath river
area in California. Not until 1944, after devastating some
two and a half million acres of land, were two species of
beetles imported from France. These beetles feed and
reproduce on goatweed, gradually decreasing this toxic plant.
In 1959, a ten year survey documented the effectiveness of
this biological control.
Fertilizer with added insecticides/herbicides: Ocanbinations
exist for special lawn problems. .The convenience is in the
application of the already mixed product. However, the proper
time to fertilize the grass may not be the best time to kill
weeds. An example, Ortho's "Weed and Feed" is but one product
available in garden centers.
Weed -Killing Sprays: Active ingredients vary in their
action: Arsenic and Chlordane have been used to kill
crabgrass; chlordane is a chlorinated hydrocarbon in which
toxic deposits build-up in animal .tissue in cumulative
fashion. Arsenic in the weed killer sodium arsenate, is a
carcinogen. (Carcinogenics can play either a direct or an
indirect role in causing cancer). The "dinitro" herbicides
are a metabolic stimulant that "burn" weeds. Aminotriazole
(amitrol) is a mutagenic agent capable of altering genes.
This is known as the cranberry -weed killer. Mutations assault
chromosomes, thus allowing cells to multiply in a wild and
unregulated manner.
Other herbicides include 2,4 -D/2,4,5 -T and related compounds;
IPC and CIPC, chemically related to carbarmates; all these are
mutagens.
In the application of weed killing products, use them
according to the manufacturer's direction. Ideally, these
chemicals are toxic only to weeds; but in reality, they
threaten the food chain. An example, the herbicide 2,4-D
temporarily disrupts nitrification.
Example:
Second generation:
Example:
Third generation:
Example:
III. At Issue: Weed Killers, their Pros and Cons
Pesticides divide into insecticides for insect control and
herbicides for weed control. Historically, pesticides group
into three generations.
First Generation: Pre - World War II
Inorganic agents such as arsenates of
lead, nicotine, and kerosene. In
addition, formaldehyde gas was used to
treat diseased seed, and sulfur to
destroy spores in soil.
Arsenic, as an active ingredient, was an
effective weed killer. The problem -
arsenic dust washed from plants by rain
trickled into streams and poisoned fish.
Post World War II
Synthesized chemical agents. Two
groups: chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT)
and organic phosphates (malathion)
Herbicides 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T their
toxicity is controversial.
Research continues to genetically
engineer less toxic pesticides.
EPA approved gene -altered dead bacteria
which gives off endotoxin, poisonous
only to targeted insects.
The use of man-made chemical weed killers (synthesized in the
laboratory) increases the quantity of food and aesthetically
improves the landscape.
Nature, itself, is chemical. Example: In photosynthesis, sunlight
converts water and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. In this
sense, synthesis means combining simple molecules to form a new
substance. However, nature is intricately balanced and the misuse
of man-made chemicals is disrupting this balance.
One reason for the misuse of herbicides is the lack of
understanding of the relationship between weeds and soil.
Indiscriminant spraying pollutes more than targeted weeds.
Chemical residues reduce the number of earthworms and other
organisms that decompose soil. Some weed species develop
resistance to the herbicides designed to control them. Examples
are ragweed and crabgrass.
Herbicides have been defended as harmless to wild life because they
were thought to be less toxic than insecticides. The cumulative
chemical residues of herbicides have endangered wildlife habitat.
To destruct homes and food of wildlife can be more devastating than
direct killing. Chemical residue tends to concentrate in animal
tissue as they pass up the food chain.
One way to avoid misusing weed killers is to observe plants in
their native habitat. Learn to identify diverse species of plants.
Only then can you selectively apply weed -killers to target unwanted
plants.
IV. Plant Ecology and the Ecological Role of Weeds
Plant ecology studies the dynamics of plant, animal, soil, and
atmosphere that establishes food webs, the oxygen cycle, and the
carbon cycle. Field botany observes and identifies species of
plants in their native habitat. When land is barren and
atmospheric conditions permit, self -propagating plants (weeds)
succeed each other in a given order (lichens, mosses, herbs,
shrubs, and trees)
Descriptively, soil surfaces the earth to support vegetation. The
ecological role of weeds can be found wherever a piece of land is
stripped of vegetation and left. idle. First, a dense ground cover
is formed to hold the soil in place by annual plants. Completing
their life cycle within a year, these weeds enrich the soil as they
rot. The next weeds are biennials which have a two-year lease on
life before being crowded out by perennials. Given more than a
two-year life span, some biennials live many years. If the climate
permits forest trees will grow. The longevity of forest trees will
persist until ravaged by fire/flood or cut into lumber by man.
When vegetation is destructed and the ground is bare, the
ecological cycle begins anew.
Nature emulated in landscaping begins with a better understanding
of the self -propagating plant species and how they inter -relate
with one another.
V. Expanding the Concept of Ecology
Ecology is the study of the relationship between living things and
the non -living elements within the environment. Our physical
environment is the biosphere; which is made-up of land, water, and
air. Planet earth's air supply is finite. Given only solar
energy, life on earth is made possible by continually recycling and
refreshing the air in the production of elemental oxygen to sustain
a balanced biosphere for the pyramid of living organisms.
Photosynthesis is the chemical process involving sunlight -capturing
greenplants to generate the air we breathe and the carbohydrates we
eat. Oxygen production begins with plankton (free-floating, green
microscopic plants) in the ocean. This is the earth's air-
freshening system.
An ecosystem is any environmentwhere the web-of-life._.is self -
renewing. Very large ecosystems are called biomes such as the
rainforest and Antarctica. Antarctica's barren "land" of ice is
the native habitat for penguins. In sharp contrast, brightly
colored birds are among the diversity of many species at home in
the abundantly vegetated tropical rainforests, global ecosystems
are interdependent with one another. This is harmony in nature.
Breakdown of intricately balanced ecosystems are leaving gaps in
the pyramid of living organisms when oxygen production form the
oceans cannot keep pace with oxygen consumption by man, the entire
biological structure is_threatened.
VI. Closing thoughts:
1. Identify the weeds that you want to keep in check.
2. What are the options to control them?
3. If you decide on a herbicide follow the manufacturer's
directions to avoid misuse. The key point: know the pros
and cons of the active ingredient.
4. Stay updated on herbicidal products that may be available
try to avoid products in which the active ingredient may
leave a chemical residue in the soil that could get into
the food chain.
5. As Rolling Hills residents, we observe various plants and
animals whose native habitat is in our area. Learn how
plants interrelate with one another to grow into a
vegetate that provides food and shelter for wild life.
REFERENCES
All About Fertilizers, Soils, and Water. Ortho Books, Chevron
Chemical Company. 1979.
Brun, Gilbert D. "Plant Ecology and Field Botany", Understanding
Botany A Laboratory Guide. Burgess Publishing.Company, 1984.
Carson, Rachel. The Silent Spring, Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1962.
Christensen, Clyde M. "The Weeds", The Book of Popular Science,
Vol. 7, Grolier Inc., 1966.
Encyclopedia Science Supplement, Grolier Inc.
1970. Cottam, Clarence, "Pesticide Pollution."
1974. Foster, Ruth S. " Plants and the Urban
Ecosystems."
1976. Wolf, Anthony, "Controlling Insects
Biologically."
1977/1978 Cusak, Michael, "Weeds."
Gales, Donald Moore. Handbook of Wildflowers, Weeds, Wildlife, and
Weather of the Palos Verdes Peninsula, Rolling Hills, 1974.
Levine, Louis, City College of New York, "Biotechnology" Grolier
Encyclopedia, 1992 Yearbook.